The International Auxiliary Language Esperanto Part 14

(_c_). An adverbial participle generally precedes its noun or p.r.o.noun.

Examples.--_Vidante sian amikon, li haltis_ = (On) seeing his friend, he stopped. _Leginte la libron, si ekdormis_ = After reading (_or_, having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (_d_)).

(_d_). For emphasis the participle may be put first in a sentence.

Examples.--_Tedita de vojagado, mi decidis reveni hejmen_ = Tired of travelling, I decided to return home. _Amataj kaj estimataj de ciuj, la fratoj havis multajn amikojn_ = Loved and esteemed by all, the brothers had many friends.

Note.--If qualifying and predicative participles are not placed in their natural position, viz., after their nouns or p.r.o.nouns, the sense may be entirely changed. For instance, in the following two sentences the words are the same, but the sense varies with their positions:--Si, kuranta en la cambron, vidis mian hundon = _She, (who is) running into the room, saw my dog_ (here kuranta is the qualifying participle of si). Si vidis mian hundon kuranta en la cambron = _She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room_ (here kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (_a_) and 108 (_b_)). The above two sentences might be altered as follows, showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial participle, and in the second a qualifying participle, as:--Kurante en la cambron, si vidis mian hundon = _(While) running into the room, she saw my dog_. Si vidis mian hundon kurantan = _She saw my running dog_. A phrase is often clearer if the conjunction ke be used instead of a predicative participle. For instance, instead of Si vidis mian hundon kuranta en la cambron, we can say Si vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la cambron = _She saw that my dog was (is) running into the room_; or, Si vidis mian hundon kuri en la cambron = _She saw my dog run into the room_.

88. Place of the adverb.--The adverb, as a rule, immediately precedes or follows the word to which it refers, or which it qualifies.

Examples.--_Li rapide kuras_, or, _Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _La virino zorge legis_ (or, _legis zorge_) _la leteron_ = The woman read the letter carefully. _Li gentile demetis la capelon_ = He politely took off his hat.

N.B.--In this last example it is more elegant to place the adverb, as in English, before the verb.

(_a_). To avoid ambiguity, care, however, must be taken not to place the adverb in a position where it might be taken to refer either to the word which precedes or the word which follows it. For instance, if an adverb be placed between two verbs, it sometimes happens that we cannot tell to which it refers, and the sense is thus materially altered.

Example.--_Li ekstreme deziris sagigi_ = He desired extremely to become wise. _Li deziris sagigi ekstreme_ = He desired to become extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the two verbs, and say _Li deziris ekstreme sagigi_, the sentence might be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on the use of _ne_ (par. 59 (_a_)). The word _nur_, also, similarly modifies the word it precedes.

(_b_). Adverbs of comparison, such as: iom, multe, kiel, plej, pli, sufice, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are usually placed before the words to which they refer.

Examples.--_Li iom lacigis kaj multe senkuragigis_ = He became somewhat fatigued and much discouraged. _Kiel malavare li agis, donante al sia frato tiom da mono, kiom li bezonis!_ = How generously he acted in giving his brother as much money as he needed! _Li venos pli au malpli frue_ = He will come sooner or later (lit., more or less early). _Vi agis plej sage, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that. _Kio ajn okazos, li estis sufice saga por tion fari_ = At all events he was wise enough to do that. _Si tre amis sian fraton_ = She loved her brother very much. _Li tro mangadas_ = He eats too much.

(_c_). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles may commence a sentence.

Examples.--_Carme, bele kaj kortuse estis vidi la birdon zorgi pri sia ido_ = Charming, beautiful and touching it was to see the bird take care of its offspring. _Starante kun la brakoj etenditaj, li paroladis al la popolamaso_ = Standing with arms outstretched, he harangued the populace (see par. 245 (_a_)).

89. Place of the preposition.--The preposition always immediately precedes its complement.

Examples.--_Skribu al mi_ = Write to me. _Li venis al mia domo kune kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo)_ = He came to my house (to me) along with the two dogs at 3 o'clock.

90. Place of the conjunction.--The conjunction always precedes the verb to which it refers, but separated from it by the words which logically intervene.

Example.--_Se iu hodiau matene deziros min vidi, diru al gi, ke mi estas tre okupita_ = If anyone (someone), this morning, should desire to see me, tell him (or her) I am very busy.

N.B.--Note that _iu_ does not give the s.e.x, therefore _gi_ is rightly used; but, as in English, the sense would be clear without the words _al gi_.

91. Place of the interrogative.--In direct questions the subject usually precedes the verb.

Examples.--_Cu vi havas mian libron?_ = Have you my book? In English, in many cases, we place the subject first; for instance, in the present tense we often commence a question with "Do"; in the past, with "Have" or "Did"; in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If we subst.i.tute _Cu_ for any of these words, we have the Esperanto construction, as:--_Cu vi bezonas tiun plumon?_ = Do you want that pen? _Cu vi faris tion?_ = Did you do that? _Cu li venos tien ci?_ = Will he come here?

92. Place of the negative.--The negative ne = _not_, when it relates directly to a verb, is placed immediately before such verb, but otherwise in its natural position in the clause; i.e., it negatives the word or words it precedes. The negative correlatives nenia, nenial, etc., may be placed in almost any position, according to the emphasis we wish to give to the word.

Examples.--_Mi lin ne vidis_, or, _Mi ne vidis lin_ = I did not see him. _Cu vi ne vidis lin?_ or, _Cu vi lin ne vidis?_ = Did you not see him? _Mi neniam renkontis sin_, or, _Neniam mi renkontis sin_, or, _Mi sin renkontis neniam_ = I never met her. _Mi volas renkonti ne nur Johanon, sed ankau Georgon_ = I want to meet not only John, but also George.

93. Order very similar to English.--The foregoing remarks show that the order of words in Esperanto is very similar to the English construction of sentences, and we can hardly do wrong if we follow it nearly word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto sometimes makes an expression more elegant but this is generally owing to harmony of sound rather than grammatical construction.

[In writing _original_ work in Esperanto it is well to cultivate a style as international as possible, and use the normal, simple, and logical order of words. In _translation_ work, when it is desired to reproduce as far as possible the national or individual atmosphere of the original, it is legitimate intentionally to reproduce in the translation--so long as intelligibility is ensured, and as far as the structure of the language permits--the characteristic order of words in the original text. The wonderful flexibility of Esperanto is one of the reasons why Esperanto is such an admirable language for translation purposes.]

PART II

GRAMMAR.

94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest _student_ who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.

It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.

Alphabet.

The twenty-eight letters and their p.r.o.nunciation are given in pars.

1-4.

N.B.--Printing offices which do not possess the letters _c_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _s_, _u_, can use instead of them _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.

Alfabeto.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Gg, Hh, Hh, Ii, Jj, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ss, Tt, Uu, Uu, Vv, Zz.

_Rimarko._--Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn _c_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _s_, _u_, povas anstatau ili uzi _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

Rules.

I.

The Article.--There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (_la_), alike for all s.e.xes, cases, and numbers.

N.B.--The use of the article is the same as in other languages.

People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.

(See pars. 96-102.)

Reguloj.

I.

_Artikolo_ nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (_la_), egala por ciuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.