The Essential Writings Of Machiavelli Part 12

A doctor no older than the age of twenty-four must be chosen for the social circle, so that he will be able to administer first aid to all the members without succ.u.mbing to exhaustion.

1. In In Mandrake Mandrake, act III, scene 2, Lucrezia stopped going to the Friars of the Servi because she was molested by one of the friars.2. Michelangelo's statue of David had recently been placed on the Piazza della Signoria in Florence. Michelangelo's statue of David had recently been placed on the Piazza della Signoria in Florence.

THE P PERSECUTION OF A AFRICA.

ON K KING H HUNERIC OF THE V VANDALS, IN THE YEAR OF OUR LORD 500, COMPOSED BY S SAINT V VICTOR, BISHOP OF U UTICA.

In "The Persecution of Africa," Machiavelli paraphrases and recasts the opening chapters of Saint Victor of Utica's poignant three-volume Latin Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae (The History of the Persecution of the African Province), creating a compelling piece of literature. It describes the persecution of the Roman Catholics of the North African Roman provinces by the invading Vandal kings, Gaiseric and Huneric, fanatical Arian Christians who followed the teachings of the fourth-century Alexandrian presbyter a.n.u.s. The Church in Rome rejected the Arian Christians as heretics, but as Saint Victor demonstrates in his book, and Machiavelli reflects in this piece, the Christians of Africa saw the Vandals as brutal pagans: "Those churches the Vandals did not destroy [...] were transformed into temples of their religion." (The History of the Persecution of the African Province), creating a compelling piece of literature. It describes the persecution of the Roman Catholics of the North African Roman provinces by the invading Vandal kings, Gaiseric and Huneric, fanatical Arian Christians who followed the teachings of the fourth-century Alexandrian presbyter a.n.u.s. The Church in Rome rejected the Arian Christians as heretics, but as Saint Victor demonstrates in his book, and Machiavelli reflects in this piece, the Christians of Africa saw the Vandals as brutal pagans: "Those churches the Vandals did not destroy [...] were transformed into temples of their religion."It is unclear when Machiavelli worked on this piece.

- It has been sixty years since the cruel Vandal race entered the lands of Africa, crossing the straits that separate Africa from Spain. Short and tall, young and old, more than eight hundred thousand of them came, as they themselves a.s.serted, so that our people, frightened by their number, would relinquish any thought of defending themselves. Finding Africa peaceful and calm, filled with riches and great abundance, the Vandals indulged in every violence, as much against men as against the earth. Wherever they trod they torched, ravaged, robbed, and slaughtered, taking men prisoner and forcing them to die in dungeons under every kind of torture. Nor did the Vandals withhold their cruelty from trees and plants. What was worse, they left neither church nor saint's tomb unscathed, torching and devastating them all. People tried to hide themselves and their possessions in valleys, forests, and caves, but to no avail, for wherever they hid they were found, robbed, and slaughtered. The Vandals attacked the churches of G.o.d and the houses of men with the greatest hatred and most fervent persecution, and wherever they found buildings locked, they hacked and hewed at them with axes as the oaks of the forest are felled, so that one could quote the verse from the Scriptures: "They behaved like men wielding axes to cut through a thicket of trees. They smashed all the carved paneling with their axes and hatchets. They burned your sanctuary to the ground."1 How many ill.u.s.trious bishops and n.o.ble priests were tortured to death, unwilling to reveal where they kept their gold and silver! And if they relinquished what they had, this only convinced the Vandals that there was more they could give. The greater the riches the persecuted surrendered, the greater the torture. Some had foul-smelling mud poured down their throats, others were forced to drink seawater, still others were given vinegar, dung, the pungent dregs of wine, and other foul-smelling liquids. The merciless Vandals bloated their victims like wineskins, nor did they have pity on girls or women. They respected neither n.o.bility nor learning and showed no reverence to the priesthood; in fact their spirits became more feral, and the Vandals unleashed their fury most, wherever they found n.o.bility and rank. How many eminent men of the Church, how many ill.u.s.trious gentlemen, were forced to carry burdens like camels and donkeys, driven on by the Vandals with goads and prods to quicken their pace, many dying under the strain. Neither youth nor age moved the Vandals to pity, and countless infants were torn from their mothers' b.r.e.a.s.t.s, sent into captivity, grabbed by their feet and dashed on the ground before their mothers' eyes, or were even held by their legs and sliced in half. This verse could have been cited at every instant: "You will kill their young men with the sword, dash their little children to the ground, and rip open their pregnant women."2 Buildings too immense to succ.u.mb to fire the Vandals ravaged and defaced, so that today no trace remains of the ancient beauty of many of our cities. Scores of towns are now inhabited by few, or are empty. The theaters and churches of Carthage, Celestial Avenue, and many fine buildings were destroyed, and those churches the Vandals did not destroy, like the Basilica that holds the bodies of Saint Perpetua and Saint Felicitas, were transformed into temples of their religion.3 Wherever they came upon a castle or fortress they could not besiege, they slaughtered countless men from the surrounding areas and laid them outside the walls, so that those inside were forced to surrender or die of the stench. Wherever they came upon a castle or fortress they could not besiege, they slaughtered countless men from the surrounding areas and laid them outside the walls, so that those inside were forced to surrender or die of the stench.

Countless saintly priests were tortured and killed, among them the venerable Papinia.n.u.s, bishop of our city, who was scorched with burning blades of steel. Mansuetus was burned at the gates of Fornitana. The city of Hippo was besieged, whose bishop was Saint Augustine,4 a man deserving the highest praise because the stream of his eloquence flowed through all the fields of the church: but in those adverse times that stream dried up and the sweetness of his speech turned into bitter absinth. David's words proved true: a man deserving the highest praise because the stream of his eloquence flowed through all the fields of the church: but in those adverse times that stream dried up and the sweetness of his speech turned into bitter absinth. David's words proved true: c.u.m consisteret peccator adversum me, obmutui et humiliatus. c.u.m consisteret peccator adversum me, obmutui et humiliatus.5 Saint Augustine had written two hundred thirty-two books, innumerable epistles, and a thorough exposition of the entire Book of Psalms and the Gospels, which are usually called homilies, the number of which is vaster than the mind can grasp. Saint Augustine had written two hundred thirty-two books, innumerable epistles, and a thorough exposition of the entire Book of Psalms and the Gospels, which are usually called homilies, the number of which is vaster than the mind can grasp.

What more can I say? After much cruelty, Gaiseric6 besieged and conquered the great and beautiful city of Carthage, reducing to servitude its ancient liberty, so forthright and n.o.ble, and all its senators to slaves. Gaiseric decreed that the people had to bring him all their gold, precious stones, and rich vestments; in a short time he deprived them of all that their fathers and grandfathers had left them. Gaiseric divided the provinces among his generals, keeping the most important ones for himself. The emperor Valentinian managed to defend and hold on to some of the provinces, but Gaiseric seized them after Valentinian's death. besieged and conquered the great and beautiful city of Carthage, reducing to servitude its ancient liberty, so forthright and n.o.ble, and all its senators to slaves. Gaiseric decreed that the people had to bring him all their gold, precious stones, and rich vestments; in a short time he deprived them of all that their fathers and grandfathers had left them. Gaiseric divided the provinces among his generals, keeping the most important ones for himself. The emperor Valentinian managed to defend and hold on to some of the provinces, but Gaiseric seized them after Valentinian's death.7 At that point Africa was his, as were the islands that lie between Africa and Italy-Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca-which he occupied and defended with his customary arrogance. Nevertheless, he later ceded Sicily to Odoacer, the king of Italy, in exchange for a tribute. At that point Africa was his, as were the islands that lie between Africa and Italy-Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca-which he occupied and defended with his customary arrogance. Nevertheless, he later ceded Sicily to Odoacer, the king of Italy, in exchange for a tribute.8 As Gaiseric had power over Africa, he commanded that the Vandal chiefs expel all the bishops and n.o.blemen from their territories. This order was carried out, and many distinguished men of the cloth and n.o.blemen became Vandal slaves. Quotvultdeus, the bishop of Carthage, and a great number of men of the church were robbed of everything, put on ships, and sent away from Africa. By the mercy of G.o.d they made their way to Naples in Italy, while Gaiseric converted to his own religion the Rest.i.tuta Cathedral, where their bishops had always officiated, plundering all the other churches inside and outside Carthage, particularly two beautiful cathedrals of Saint Cyprian the Martyr,9 one where his blood was shed, the other where he was buried, in Mappalia. Who can remember without tears how that cruel tyrant ordered the bodies of our saints to be buried without solemn psalms? And while these things were being done, the men of the church who had not yet left for exile from the African provinces that he had divided among his generals decided to meet with King Gaiseric, to beg him to show compa.s.sion. They gathered and went before the king, who was in the land of the Ma.s.syli, one where his blood was shed, the other where he was buried, in Mappalia. Who can remember without tears how that cruel tyrant ordered the bodies of our saints to be buried without solemn psalms? And while these things were being done, the men of the church who had not yet left for exile from the African provinces that he had divided among his generals decided to meet with King Gaiseric, to beg him to show compa.s.sion. They gathered and went before the king, who was in the land of the Ma.s.syli,10 and beseeched him to allow their Christian people to stay in Africa and eke out a living there. To this the king replied: "I am resolved not to leave a single man of your name and tribe in this land, and you have the impudence to beg for mercy?" He would have thrown them all immediately into the sea, but his barons pleaded that he refrain from such an evil act. and beseeched him to allow their Christian people to stay in Africa and eke out a living there. To this the king replied: "I am resolved not to leave a single man of your name and tribe in this land, and you have the impudence to beg for mercy?" He would have thrown them all immediately into the sea, but his barons pleaded that he refrain from such an evil act.

Despondent and miserable, the men of G.o.d retreated, and began secretly administering the divine rites whenever and wherever they had the opportunity.

1. Machiavelli quotes Psalm 74, lines 57, from the Vulgate in slightly altered Latin: Machiavelli quotes Psalm 74, lines 57, from the Vulgate in slightly altered Latin: Quasi in silva lignorum securibus consciderunt Quasi in silva lignorum securibus consciderunt [Vulgate: [Vulgate: exciderunt] ianuas eius exciderunt] ianuas eius [Machiavelli adds: [Machiavelli adds: in id ipsum], in securi et ascia deiecerunt eam, incenderunt igni sanctuarium tuum in id ipsum], in securi et ascia deiecerunt eam, incenderunt igni sanctuarium tuum.2. Machiavelli quotes II Kings 8:12 in strongly altered Latin: Machiavelli quotes II Kings 8:12 in strongly altered Latin: Dixit inimicis incendere se fines meos, interficere infantes meos et parvulos meos elisurum ad terram Dixit inimicis incendere se fines meos, interficere infantes meos et parvulos meos elisurum ad terram.3. Saint Perpetua, a young Carthaginian n.o.blewoman, and her slave Felicitas were martyred in 203 CE during the Roman persecution of Christians and were among the foremost martyred saints of the North African Roman provinces. The Vandals were ardent Arian Christians (followers of the doctrines of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius), who differed in doctrinal matters from the Roman Catholic Church, particularly regarding the divinity of Christ. Saint Perpetua, a young Carthaginian n.o.blewoman, and her slave Felicitas were martyred in 203 CE during the Roman persecution of Christians and were among the foremost martyred saints of the North African Roman provinces. The Vandals were ardent Arian Christians (followers of the doctrines of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius), who differed in doctrinal matters from the Roman Catholic Church, particularly regarding the divinity of Christ.4. Saint Augustine (354430 Saint Augustine (354430 CE CE), one of the Latin Fathers of the Church and a leading Christian theologian, died during Gaiseric's siege of Hippo Regius (in today's Algeria).5. Psalm 39:1 (Vulgate 38:2): "I will keep my mouth with a bridle while the wicked is before me. I was mute with silence." Psalm 39:1 (Vulgate 38:2): "I will keep my mouth with a bridle while the wicked is before me. I was mute with silence."6. King Gaiseric of the Vandals (d. 477 King Gaiseric of the Vandals (d. 477 CE CE) crossed the Straits of Gibraltar in 428 CE CE and conquered a large part of Roman North Africa. and conquered a large part of Roman North Africa.7. Roman Emperor Valentinian III (41955 Roman Emperor Valentinian III (41955 CE CE). Saint Victor of Utica writes in The History of the Persecution of the African Province: The History of the Persecution of the African Province: "They then divided the conquered provinces among themselves, Gaiseric keeping Byzacena, Abaritana, as well as Gaetulia and part of Numidia, while he gave his army Zeugitana, or Proconsularis. Emperor Valentinian still held the other provinces that Gaiseric had tried to a.s.sail, but after Valentinian's death all of Africa was his." "They then divided the conquered provinces among themselves, Gaiseric keeping Byzacena, Abaritana, as well as Gaetulia and part of Numidia, while he gave his army Zeugitana, or Proconsularis. Emperor Valentinian still held the other provinces that Gaiseric had tried to a.s.sail, but after Valentinian's death all of Africa was his."8. King Odoacer (c. 43393 King Odoacer (c. 43393 CE CE) was the first barbarian king of Italy, the beginning of whose reign in 476 CE is considered the end of the Western Roman Empire.9. Saint Cyprian (20058 Saint Cyprian (20058 CE CE). AS Bishop of Carthage he was a major spiritual leader during Rome's persecution of North African Christians. After his execution he became the first bishop-martyr of Africa.10. A dominant Numidian tribe to which King Ma.s.sinissa of Numidia had belonged. A dominant Numidian tribe to which King Ma.s.sinissa of Numidia had belonged.

BELf.a.gOR.

Machiavelli's contemporaries prized him for his stories, but "Belf.a.gor" is the only one that has come down to us. It is uncertain when it was written, but it is believed to have been composed between 1518 and 1520, after Machiavelli had completed The Prince The Prince and and The Discourses. The Discourses. The theme of "Belf.a.gor" existed in medieval literature The theme of "Belf.a.gor" existed in medieval literature.

- One can read in the ancient chronicles of Florence and also hear tales told of a most saintly man whose life was extolled by all who lived in his times. Transported in prayer, he saw descend to h.e.l.l infinite souls of wretched mortals who had died in the displeasure of G.o.d, all these souls, or most of them, protesting that it was only because they had taken wives that they had been brought to such grief. Minos, Radamanthus, and the other judges of h.e.l.l were perplexed, unable to believe the accusations leveled at the fair s.e.x, but the allegations grew with every pa.s.sing day, until they saw themselves compelled to inform Pluto.

Pluto called together a council of infernal princes to examine and debate the matter so that pertinent action could be taken to reveal the falseness or truth of these claims, and stepping before the council he proclaimed: "Beloved friends! By celestial decree and the irrevocable course of destiny I am the ruler of this kingdom and thus cannot be bound by any judgment, earthly or celestial. Nevertheless, the wisest rulers are those who, though they have the greatest power, are keenest to submit themselves to the laws and are most inclined to respect the judgment of others. Therefore I have concluded that I would do well to be counseled by you on a matter that could bring shame to our reign. When all the souls of men who enter our kingdom proclaim that they have been driven here by their wives-a thing that seems impossible to me-I fear that if I should pa.s.s a judgment that is too severe, I might be accused of being too cruel, and if I should pa.s.s a judgment that is not severe enough, I might be accused of being too lenient, and not a lover of justice. The first sin is that of a frivolous ruler, the second of a ruler who is unjust. As I wish to avoid either charge but cannot find the means of doing so, I have called you together so that with your counsel you can offer a.s.sistance and be the reason that our kingdom will once again prevail without infamy!"

Each of the infernal princes saw that the case was very important and of the greatest consequence. They unanimously agreed that it was vital to discover the truth, but were divided on how this should be achieved. Some argued that one among their ranks ought to be sent up into the world, others that several should be sent, so that, adopting human form, they could discover the truth in person. Still others argued that this could be accomplished without so much inconvenience were they to compel various souls to reveal the truth through an array of torments. But as the greater part of the council advised that a single devil ought to be sent up into the world, this decision was finally adopted. None of the devils, however, was prepared to take on this expedition voluntarily, and so it was decided that one would be chosen by lot-a lot that happened to fall on Belf.a.gor, an archdevil who had been an archangel before he fell from Heaven. Belf.a.gor took on the duty with extreme reluctance, but compelled by Pluto's authority, declared himself willing to carry out the council's decree, and committed himself to the conditions that had been solemnly decided upon. The conditions were that the devil who was entrusted with this task would be provided with a hundred thousand ducats, with which he was to go into the world. There, in the guise of a man, he was to take a wife with whom he was to live for ten years, after which, feigning death, he would return to the netherworld, where he would report to his superiors concerning the burdens and afflictions of marriage. The council also declared that during his period in the world he would be subjected to every hardship and strife that beset mankind-poverty prison, illness, and every other misfortune that men incur-unless he could free himself from these by means of deceit or trickery.

Belf.a.gor entered the world with money and a human form. Provided by the tribe of devils with horses and attendants, he arrived in Florence with much pomp, having chosen that city above all others, as it struck him as the ideal place for a man wishing to employ his money in the arts of usury. He adopted the name Roderigo di Castiglia and took a house in the Borgo Ognissanti.1 So that no one would discover his origins, he let it be known that he had left Spain for Syria as a boy and had made his fortune in Aleppo: He had now come to Italy with the intention of marrying and settling down, as Italy, being more humane and civilized, was more to his taste. Roderigo was quite a handsome man and looked to be about thirty years old, and having within a few days made a show of his great wealth and proven himself kind and generous, he was approached by many n.o.ble citizens who had an abundance of daughters but a scarcity of funds. Roderigo's choice fell upon a beautiful maiden by the name of Onesta, the daughter of Amerigo Donati, who had three other daughters who were almost of a marriageable age, and three grown sons. Amerigo Donati was of a n.o.ble family and was very highly regarded in Florence, but he was extremely poor in relation to his large brood of children and social position. So that no one would discover his origins, he let it be known that he had left Spain for Syria as a boy and had made his fortune in Aleppo: He had now come to Italy with the intention of marrying and settling down, as Italy, being more humane and civilized, was more to his taste. Roderigo was quite a handsome man and looked to be about thirty years old, and having within a few days made a show of his great wealth and proven himself kind and generous, he was approached by many n.o.ble citizens who had an abundance of daughters but a scarcity of funds. Roderigo's choice fell upon a beautiful maiden by the name of Onesta, the daughter of Amerigo Donati, who had three other daughters who were almost of a marriageable age, and three grown sons. Amerigo Donati was of a n.o.ble family and was very highly regarded in Florence, but he was extremely poor in relation to his large brood of children and social position.

Roderigo had a magnificent wedding, not omitting any splendor that might be desired. The infernal council had decreed that he was now to be subjected to every human pa.s.sion, and so he began taking delight in the honors and pomp of the world, and to value society's approbation. This cost him a significant amount of money. He had not lived long with Madonna Onesta before he fell in love with her beyond measure, and could not bear her being sad or displeased in any way. Along with her n.o.bility and beauty, Madonna Onesta had brought into Roderigo's house a pride that outshone that of Lucifer. And Roderigo, who had had ample experienced of both, had to admit that his wife's pride was far superior. But Madonna Onesta's pride grew by great bounds the instant she perceived the love her husband bore her. She now felt that she could rule him in every way and began ordering him about without mercy or restraint, nor did she delay hurling harsh and hurtful words at him if he hesitated in fulfilling her every fancy. This caused Roderigo great distress. Nevertheless, his father-in-law, her brothers, her family, and the bonds of matrimony, and, above all, his great love for her, made him bear his plight with patience.

I shall pa.s.s over the vast expenditure he made in his attempts to appease her by dressing her in the latest fashions and styles that our city knows to vary with infinite resourcefulness. I will also pa.s.s over how Roderigo, in his quest for domestic peace, a.s.sisted his father-in-law in marrying off his other daughters, here too spending great amounts of money. To appease Madonna Onesta he was forced to send one of her brothers eastward with linen, another westward with silks, and set up her third brother as a gold beater in Florence, enterprises that depleted the greater part of his fortune. Then came the Carnival of San Giovanni, when by ancient custom the whole city revels and celebrates, and all the n.o.blest and richest citizens make a great show with splendid banquets. Here Madonna Onesta would not be eclipsed by any other Florentine lady, and insisted that Roderigo's feasts outshine those of all the others.

Roderigo bore these trials for the reasons I have mentioned, and no expenditure, however vast, would have seemed excessive had it brought a measure of harmony to his house, giving him some peace of mind as he awaited his approaching ruin. But the opposite was the case, because the outlandish expenses and Madonna Onesta's insolent nature caused him infinite distress. No servant in the house could bear her ways for more than a few days. As a result Roderigo's dealings suffered, as he could not keep a single loyal servant who could see to his affairs. Even the devils he had brought with him as manservants preferred to return to h.e.l.l and roast in fire than live in the world under that woman's rule.

Roderigo, his life increasingly tumultuous and troubled, had soon consumed all his resources through immoderate spending, and now began to live in the hope that financial returns might be forthcoming from East and West. Roderigo still had good credit, and drew upon it so that he would not lose his standing in Florence. Soon there were so many of his promissory notes in circulation that the local creditors took note. His position was already precarious in the extreme when dire news arrived from East and West: One of Madonna Onesta's brothers had gambled away all of Roderigo's investment, while the other, sailing back to Florence entirely uninsured on a ship loaded with Roderigo's merchandise, had gone down with the ship and everything in it. No sooner did this become known than Roderigo's creditors met to confer. They were aware that he was ruined, but could not proceed against him as the time for repayment had not yet come. The creditors therefore concluded that they would watch him closely so that he would not attempt to escape behind their backs.

Roderigo could not see a way out of his predicament, and aware of the limits the infernal council had set upon him, was resolved to escape by fair means or foul. One morning he mounted a horse, and as he lived near the Porta al Prato, he rode out of Florence through it. No sooner did his departure become known, than a hue and cry arose among his creditors. They turned to the magistrates and set out after him with officers of the law and a crowd of townsmen. Roderigo was not more than a mile out of Florence when he heard the hubbub behind him. Realizing that the odds were against him, he decided that he would do better to leave the road and try his luck by escaping over the fields. He was, however, impeded from riding across the open country by many ditches, and so decided to continue his escape on foot. He left his mount by the roadside and made his way over fields covered in vines and cane brakes until he reached Peretola and the hut of Gianmatteo del Brica.

Gianmatteo was one of Giovanni del Bene's tenants, and Roderigo came upon him as he returned home to feed his cattle. He begged Gianmatteo to help him, promising great riches if he saved him from his enemies who were out to lock him up in a dungeon till the day he died. He would furnish him proof of the wealth that would be his, and should this not convince him, he could hand him over to his enemies. Gianmatteo, though a peasant, was a spirited man and quickly saw that he had nothing to lose by saving Roderigo. He pushed him into a pile of manure that lay in front of his hut, covering him with straw and chaff that he had raked together to burn. Roderigo had barely managed to hide when his pursuers arrived, and despite their threats they could not force Gianmatteo to admit that he had seen Roderigo. So they went on their way looking for him in vain that day and the next, until they returned exhausted to Florence.

When all was quiet, Gianmatteo pulled Roderigo out from the manure heap and asked him to fulfill his promise.

"My brother," Roderigo said, "I am under great obligation to you and will in every way keep my pledge to you. And so that you will realize how capable I am of keeping my pledge, I shall tell you who I am." And Roderigo told him who he was, the conditions put upon him when he left h.e.l.l, and of the wife he had taken. He also told Gianmatteo how he intended to make him rich. News would come that a woman was possessed by a demon, and Gianmatteo should know that it was Roderigo who was possessing her, and that he would not leave her body until Gianmatteo came to perform an exorcism. He could then ask whatever sum he wished from her relatives.

Gianmatteo agreed, and Roderigo disappeared.

Only a few days later, word spread throughout Florence that the daughter of Messer Ambruogio Amidei who had married Bonaiuto Tebalducci was possessed by a demon. Her family was doing everything one did in such cases, placing the skull of Saint Zan.o.bi on her head and covering her with the mantle of Saint Giovanni Gualberto, at all of which Roderigo thumbed his nose. To make it plain that the girl was possessed by a demon and not simply in the grip of some girlish fancy, he had her speak in Latin and debate on philosophical matters, and had her reveal the sins of many people, including a monk who for more than four years had kept a woman in his cell dressed as a novice. Everyone in Florence marveled at this. But her father, Messer Ambruogio, was not at all pleased. He had tried every remedy and had lost all hope of a cure when Gianmatteo stepped before him and promised that he would restore his daughter for a sum of five hundred florins, with which he intended to purchase a farm in Peretola. Messer Ambruogio agreed. Gianmatteo first had Ma.s.ses sung and then went through some rituals to add color to the proceedings, after which he leaned down to the young woman's ear and said: "Roderigo, I have come so that you can keep your promise to me." To which Roderigo replied: "This has worked out well. But it will not be enough to make you rich. So I shall leave this young woman and enter the daughter of King Carlo of Naples. I will refuse to leave her until you are summoned. King Carlo will reward you well, and you and I will be done." Having spoken these words, he left the young woman's body, to the delight and admiration of all Florence.

Soon word of the misfortune that had struck King Carlo's daughter spread throughout Italy. The king could find no cure, and, hearing of Gianmatteo, sent to Florence for him. Gianmatteo arrived in Naples and after a sham ceremony cured the princess. But Roderigo, before leaving, said: "As you see, Gianmatteo, I have kept my promise to make you rich. Now that I have fulfilled my obligation, I am no longer in your debt. You must never call upon me again, because if until now I have benefited you, in future I shall I will bring you harm."

Gianmatteo returned to Florence a wealthy man. The king had given him more than fifty thousand ducats, and he intended to enjoy his riches in peace, as he did not think that Roderigo would have cause to do him harm. But this thought was quickly dashed when news came that the daughter of Louis VII of France was possessed. Gianmatteo was distressed when he thought of the king's power on the one hand, and Roderigo's on the other. The king found no cure for his daughter, and having heard of Gianmatteo's skill, sent a messenger to find him. Gianmatteo resisted, alleging various difficulties, and the king turned to the Signoria of Florence,2 which forced Gianmatteo to obey. which forced Gianmatteo to obey.

Gianmatteo arrived in Paris a miserable man. He informed the king that it was true enough that he had cured possessed women in the past, but that this did not mean that he could exorcise all demons, because some were so perfidious that they feared neither threat nor holy incantation. He promised to do his best, but if he did not succeed, he craved forgiveness and pardon. The king, vexed at these words, proclaimed that if Gianmatteo did not cure his daughter he would have him hanged. The poor man was distraught. Nevertheless he had the princess come to him, and, leaning down to her ear, humbly begged Roderigo to remember how he had helped him in his hour of need and how it would be great ingrat.i.tude on his part if he abandoned him now in such a dire circ.u.mstance. To this Roderigo replied: "Fie, cowardly traitor! You have the temerity to come before me again? Do you think you can boast of having made yourself rich at my hands? I will prove to you and to everyone else that just as I can give, I can also take away. Before you leave this place, I shall see you hang."

Gianmatteo, in his distress, decided to try a different tactic. He had the possessed princess taken away and said to the king: "Sire, as I have informed you, there are many spirits that are so perfidious that one cannot hope for any good outcome. This spirit, unfortunately, is one of them. But I wish to try one final procedure. If it succeeds, Your Majesty and I will have achieved our aim. If it does not, I will be in Your Majesty's hands, and will hope for the mercy that my innocence merits. I request that Your Majesty set up a platform on the Place Notre Dame that will be large and strong enough to hold all the barons and clergy of Paris. The platform must be bedecked with drapes of silk and gold, and must have an altar in the middle. On Sunday morning, Your Majesty, the clergy, and all your princes and barons must congregate in rich vestments and royal splendor on this platform. First a solemn Ma.s.s must be sung and the possessed princess brought out onto the platform. I also require at least twenty men with trumpets, horns, tambours, bagpipes, drums, and cymbals, along with any other instrument that can make a din. When I raise my hat, the men must begin striking their instruments and blowing their horns as they march toward the platform. I believe that all this and certain other secret remedies will force the demon to depart."

The king had everything arranged. On Sunday morning, the n.o.ble personages crowded onto the platform and the populace of Paris crowded onto the square. A Ma.s.s was sung, and the possessed princess was led onto the platform by two bishops and a retinue of lords. Roderigo was amazed when he saw the mult.i.tude and the elaborate contrivances.

"I wonder what this cowardly sluggard is up to?" he said to himself. "Does he think he can frighten me with all this pomp? Does he not know that I have beheld all the splendors of Heaven and the furies of h.e.l.l? I will punish him."

When Gianmatteo approached the princess and asked Roderigo to leave, Roderigo said: "This is a fine idea you've had! What do you expect to achieve with these foolish contrivances? Do you think that you can either escape my power or the wrath of the king? I will see you hanged, you cowardly rogue!"

Gianmatteo begged, and the archdevil spewed abuse, until Gianmatteo realized that he had no more time to lose. He raised his hat, and the men who had been commissioned to make a great din began striking and blowing into their instruments, marching toward the platform with a clamor that rose to the heavens. Roderigo, greatly astonished, p.r.i.c.ked up his ears, unable to fathom what all the noise might be. Perplexed, he asked Gianmatteo what was happening, to which Gianmatteo replied with great agitation: "Alas, Roderigo, it is your wife! She has come to get you!"

A miraculous change came upon Roderigo when he heard the word "wife." The change was so momentous that he gave no thought to whether it was even possible or a reasonable a.s.sumption that his wife could have come, and without another word, he fled in terror, releasing the young princess. He preferred to return to h.e.l.l and account for his deeds than ever again to face the trouble, spite, and dangers of the matrimonial yoke.

Thus Belf.a.gor returned to h.e.l.l and bore witness to the ills that wives brought on a house, while Gianmatteo, who had outwitted the devil, traveled back home a cheerful man.

1. "The Quarter of All Saints," a street near the Arno River in Florence. "The Quarter of All Saints," a street near the Arno River in Florence.2. The chief executive council. The chief executive council.

THE L LIFE OF C CASTRUCCIO C CASTRACANI OF L LUCCA.

COMPOSED BY N NICCOLO M MACHIAVELLI AND SENT TO HIS DEAREST FRIENDS, ZAn.o.bI B BUONDELMONTI AND L LUIGI A ALAMANNI.

In The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca Machiavelli blends biography, historical chronicle, and literary fiction to create a portrait of the ideal warrior prince. Since its first publication in 1533, it has traditionally been printed together with Machiavelli blends biography, historical chronicle, and literary fiction to create a portrait of the ideal warrior prince. Since its first publication in 1533, it has traditionally been printed together with The Prince The Prince to provide an extension of Machiavelli's vision of the ideal ruler to provide an extension of Machiavelli's vision of the ideal ruler.Machiavelli relied on chronicles and accounts of Castracani's life for historical facts, but invented characters and situations and reshuffled and conflated historical events in order to enliven his narrative. Machiavelli wrote this piece at an important moment in his life: After eight years of exclusion from Florentine politics, he was sent to the city of Lucca as an official emissary in the bankruptcy case of Michele Guinigi, whose family name Machiavelli was to use in the story as that of Castracani's fict.i.tious guardian.Though Castruccio Castracani had been a dire enemy of Florence, causing untold damage to the city, Machiavelli did not allow this to affect his admiration for the self-made prince, who for a few years had turned the small town of Lucca into a foremost Italian power.

- Those who have given the matter some thought, dearest Zan.o.bi and Luigi, will marvel that most, if not all, men who have accomplished great deeds and excelled above all others of their era were of low birth and obscure origins, or were tormented beyond compare. They were exposed to wild beasts, or had such lowly fathers that in shame they declared themselves to be sons of Jove or some other G.o.d. It would be an onerous task and objectionable to the reader to list all these men, as they are well known, so I shall pa.s.s over them. I believe that the lowly origins of great men is Fortune's way of demonstrating that it is she and not Wisdom who makes men great. So that Fortune be acknowledged as supreme, she shows her powers very early in a man's life, well before Wisdom could hope to play a role.

Castruccio Castracani of Lucca was one of the men who, despite the times in which he lived and the city in which he was born, did great things. Like others who rose to great heights, he did not have a fortunate or distinguished birth, as will become clear in my description of the course of his life. I considered it useful to bring his life to wider attention, as I feel it demonstrates many instances of skill and Fortune that will provide a powerful example to others. I have decided to present this work to you, my friends, since you, more than anyone else I know, delight in valiant deeds.

The Castracani were among the n.o.ble families of Lucca, though since the wheel of Fortune turns, the Castracani of that era had fallen on hard times. A boy named Antonio had been born into the family and raised to become a man of the church, and soon became Lucca's canon of the order of San Michele. As a sign of honor, the people of Lucca addressed him as Messer Antonio. He had only one sister, who had been married to a Buonaccorso Cennami, but after she was widowed, not intending to remarry, she returned to live with him.

Behind Messer Antonio's house was a vineyard that was surrounded by gardens, and thus could be easily entered from many sides. One morning soon after sunrise, Madonna Dianora (that was the name of Messer Antonio's sister) was walking through the vineyard collecting herbs for the pantry, as women do. Suddenly there was a rustling beneath the branches of a vine. Madonna Dianora looked in that direction and heard what sounded like weeping. She walked toward the vine and saw the hands and face of a baby boy wrapped in leaves, who seemed to be calling out to her for help. Amazed and bewildered, but also filled with compa.s.sion and wonder, Madonna Dianora picked up the baby and carried him inside, where she washed him, wrapped him in white swaddling cloth, as was the custom, and presented him to Messer Antonio as soon as he came home. When he heard what had happened and saw the child, he was no less filled with amazement and compa.s.sion than she had been, and the two discussed what they should do. They decided to raise the child-Messer Antonio being a priest and she childless-so they hired a nurse, and brought up the child with as much love as if it were their own. They baptized the boy Castruccio, after their father.1 With every year Castruccio grew in charm and character, proving himself in all things an intelligent and clever boy. He studied under Messer Antonio, who hoped that he would become a priest, and who intended, when the time came, to leave him his canonry and his other worldly possessions. Messer Antonio tutored him with this in mind, but soon realized that Castruccio was unsuited for the priestly calling. By the time the boy was fourteen he began to stand up to Messer Antonio and no longer feared Madonna Dianora, and he set aside his ecclesiastical books to follow his interest in weapons. In fact, nothing pleased Castruccio more than handling weapons, running, jumping, and wrestling with other boys his age. Here he showed physical skill and courage far beyond that of his peers, and if he did pick up a book, then only one that told of wars and the feats of great men. Messer Antonio was deeply grieved.

There lived in Lucca a fine gentleman of the Guinigi family by the name of Messer Francesco, who was graced with skill and valor far surpa.s.sing that of any other gentleman of Lucca.2 He was a condottiere who had fought for many years under the Visconti of Milan, and was one of the foremost partisans of the Ghibelline faction in Lucca. He was a condottiere who had fought for many years under the Visconti of Milan, and was one of the foremost partisans of the Ghibelline faction in Lucca.3 Whenever he was in town, he would meet mornings and evenings with the other citizens beneath the balcony of the Whenever he was in town, he would meet mornings and evenings with the other citizens beneath the balcony of the podesta podesta, the chief magistrate's palace, which is at the head of the Piazza di San Michele, Lucca's main square. There he often noticed Castruccio playing war games with the other boys, and saw that he surpa.s.sed them in skill and that he even had some sort of regal command over them for which the other boys seemed to love and respect him.

Messer Francesco desired to find out more about the boy and when he was told the story of his background he resolved to take him under his wing. One day he called Castruccio into his presence and asked him where he would prefer to be, in the house of a gentleman who would teach him to ride and use weapons, or in the house of a priest where he would be taught nothing but services and Ma.s.ses. It did not escape Messer Francesco that Castruccio brightened at the mention of horses and arms. The boy stood before him in modest silence, but when Messer Francesco encouraged him to speak, Castruccio replied that if Messer Antonio did not mind, nothing would make him happier than abandoning his priestly studies and taking up those of the soldier. Messer Francesco was pleased, and within a few days managed to persuade Messer Antonio, though it was in fact Castruccio's nature that had swayed the priest, since he knew he would not be able to keep him in check much longer.

Once young Castruccio moved from the house of Messer Antonio Castracani the priest to that of Messer Francesco Guinigi the condottiere, one can only marvel at the swiftness with which the boy mastered the skills and customs of a gentleman. He became an excellent horseman, able to handle the wildest horse with great dexterity. Though still a youth, he stood out above all others in jousts and tournaments, so that in every feat, whether of strength or skill, no man could surpa.s.s him. All the while, Castruccio's comportment was unfailingly modest. He never said or did anything that might displease: He was respectful to men stationed above him, modest with his equals, and pleasant to his inferiors. He was loved not only by the Guinigi family but by all of Lucca.

Castruccio had turned eighteen when the Ghibellines were ousted from Pavia by the Guelphs, and Messer Francesco Guinigi was sent by the Visconti of Milan to aid the Ghibellines. Castruccio went with him as captain of his company, and throughout the campaign showed so much prudence and courage that no other soldier acquired so much prestige. He became renowned and honored not only in Pavia, but in all of Lombardy.4 When Castruccio returned to Lucca he found that his standing had grown even more since he had joined the campaign, and he made sure to gain as many allies and supporters as he could, using all the methods necessary to win men over. Then Messer Francesco Guinigi died, leaving behind a thirteen-year-old son, Pagolo, with Castruccio as his guardian and the administrator of his estate. Before Messer Francesco died, he sent for Castruccio and entreated him to raise his son with the same devotion with which Messer Francesco had raised Castruccio, asking Castruccio to repay to his son the grat.i.tude he owed him.

With Messer Francesco's death Castruccio became Pagolo's guardian, which further increased his standing and power. But some of the esteem in Lucca that had been his now turned into jealousy Certain men of influence, suspecting that he had his mind set on tyranny, began slandering him. Foremost among them was Messer Giorgio degli Obizi,5 the leader of the Guelph faction, who had hoped to become something like a prince of Lucca upon Messer Francesco's death. In Messer Giorgio's view, Castruccio was becoming the most influential man in Lucca on account of the admiration and prestige that his qualities inspired among the people, and so he began spreading rumors calculated to weaken Castruccio's standing. At first Castruccio looked on Messer Giorgio's efforts with contempt, but soon he began to worry that Messer Giorgio would not rest until he had blackened him in the eyes of the governor of King Roberto of Naples, and had him driven from Lucca. the leader of the Guelph faction, who had hoped to become something like a prince of Lucca upon Messer Francesco's death. In Messer Giorgio's view, Castruccio was becoming the most influential man in Lucca on account of the admiration and prestige that his qualities inspired among the people, and so he began spreading rumors calculated to weaken Castruccio's standing. At first Castruccio looked on Messer Giorgio's efforts with contempt, but soon he began to worry that Messer Giorgio would not rest until he had blackened him in the eyes of the governor of King Roberto of Naples, and had him driven from Lucca.6 The ruler of neighboring Pisa in those days was Uguccione della f.a.ggiuola of Arezzo. He had first been elected by the Pisans as their military commander, and afterward had made himself their prince.7 In his entourage were a few men of the Ghibelline faction who had been banished from Lucca, with whom Castruccio communicated with the aim of bringing the Ghibellines back to power in Lucca with Uguccione's help. Castruccio revealed his designs to his allies in Lucca, who also resented the power of the Obizi family. They set up a plan, and Castruccio carefully began to fortify the tower of the Onesti family In his entourage were a few men of the Ghibelline faction who had been banished from Lucca, with whom Castruccio communicated with the aim of bringing the Ghibellines back to power in Lucca with Uguccione's help. Castruccio revealed his designs to his allies in Lucca, who also resented the power of the Obizi family. They set up a plan, and Castruccio carefully began to fortify the tower of the Onesti family8 stocking it with munitions and provisions so that he could barricade himself in it for a few days if necessary. stocking it with munitions and provisions so that he could barricade himself in it for a few days if necessary.

On a night that Uguccione and Castruccio had agreed on, Uguccione rode out from Pisa with a large force and positioned his men on the plain between the mountains and Lucca. When Castruccio gave him a sign, Uguccione advanced on the Gate of San Piero and set fire to the portcullis, while inside, Castruccio called the populace to arms and forced open the gates so that Uguccione and his men could overrun the town and kill Messer Giorgio and all his family, friends, and partisans. The governor of Lucca was chased from the town, and Uguccione of Pisa rearranged the government to his liking, but at great cost to Lucca, for he banished more than a hundred families, some of whom fled to Florence, others to Pistoia, cities ruled by the Guelph faction, and so became enemies of Uguccione and the town of Lucca.

Florence and the other Guelph strongholds saw the Ghibelline faction as having gained too much power in Tuscany, and they forged an alliance to reinstate the banished Guelph families of Lucca. Gathering a large army, they marched on Val di Nievole, occupied Montecatini, and went on to Montecarlo to secure the mountain pa.s.s to Lucca.9 In the meantime, Uguccione had enlisted many men from Pisa and Lucca, as well as German cavalrymen he brought in from Lombardy and marched on the Florentine encampment. When the Florentines heard of the enemy's approach they retreated from Montecarlo and posted themselves between Montecatini and Pescia. Uguccione took up position outside Montecarlo, some two miles from the enemy, but for a few days there were only light skirmishes between his cavalry and the Florentines, as Uguccione had fallen ill and did not want his soldiers to engage the enemy in all-out battle. Uguccione's health deteriorated and he was taken to Montecarlo to be treated, leaving Castruccio in charge of the army In the meantime, Uguccione had enlisted many men from Pisa and Lucca, as well as German cavalrymen he brought in from Lombardy and marched on the Florentine encampment. When the Florentines heard of the enemy's approach they retreated from Montecarlo and posted themselves between Montecatini and Pescia. Uguccione took up position outside Montecarlo, some two miles from the enemy, but for a few days there were only light skirmishes between his cavalry and the Florentines, as Uguccione had fallen ill and did not want his soldiers to engage the enemy in all-out battle. Uguccione's health deteriorated and he was taken to Montecarlo to be treated, leaving Castruccio in charge of the army10 This led to the ruin of the Guelph army, for they took courage at the news that the enemy forces were without their commander. Castruccio was aware of this, and decided to reinforce this conviction by remaining inactive for a few days, feigning fear, and not allowing his forces to leave camp. At this the Guelphs' insolence grew, and they began parading every day in full battle formation before Castruccio's forces. Once Castruccio felt that he had studied their formation and emboldened them enough, he decided to engage them in battle, firing up his soldiers with a speech a.s.suring them that victory would be theirs if they followed his command. This led to the ruin of the Guelph army, for they took courage at the news that the enemy forces were without their commander. Castruccio was aware of this, and decided to reinforce this conviction by remaining inactive for a few days, feigning fear, and not allowing his forces to leave camp. At this the Guelphs' insolence grew, and they began parading every day in full battle formation before Castruccio's forces. Once Castruccio felt that he had studied their formation and emboldened them enough, he decided to engage them in battle, firing up his soldiers with a speech a.s.suring them that victory would be theirs if they followed his command.

Castruccio had seen that the enemy had gathered all their power at the center of their formation, leaving the weaker men on the flanks; consequently he did the opposite, putting his most valiant men on his flanks, and those of lesser mettle in the center.11 Castruccio's forces then marched out in this formation, and the moment he sighted the enemy, who with their usual insolence had come to find him, he ordered his weaker squadrons in the center to slow their step and the squadrons on the flanks to quicken theirs. In this way, when the two armies met, only their flanks would engage in battle, while the center battalions remained out of action. Castruccio's center forces stayed so far back that the enemy's powerful center could not reach them: thus Castruccio's most skilled soldiers fought the enemy's weakest, while the enemy's most valiant men could neither attack those who were out of reach in front of them, nor come to the aid of their weaker flank squadrons. As a result, Castruccio sent the two enemy flanks in headlong retreat, and the enemy's center forces, seeing their flanks exposed, turned and ran as well, robbed of the chance to demonstrate their prowess. Castruccio's forces then marched out in this formation, and the moment he sighted the enemy, who with their usual insolence had come to find him, he ordered his weaker squadrons in the center to slow their step and the squadrons on the flanks to quicken theirs. In this way, when the two armies met, only their flanks would engage in battle, while the center battalions remained out of action. Castruccio's center forces stayed so far back that the enemy's powerful center could not reach them: thus Castruccio's most skilled soldiers fought the enemy's weakest, while the enemy's most valiant men could neither attack those who were out of reach in front of them, nor come to the aid of their weaker flank squadrons. As a result, Castruccio sent the two enemy flanks in headlong retreat, and the enemy's center forces, seeing their flanks exposed, turned and ran as well, robbed of the chance to demonstrate their prowess.

The rout and slaughter were great. More than ten thousand men were killed, among them many captains and prominent Guelph n.o.bles from throughout Tuscany as well as princes who had rallied to aid them, such as King Roberto's brother Piero, the king's nephew Carlo, and Prince Filippo of Taranto.12 Castruccio, on the other hand, lost only about three hundred men, among them Uguccione's young and valiant son Francesco, who was killed at the very beginning of the attack. Castruccio, on the other hand, lost only about three hundred men, among them Uguccione's young and valiant son Francesco, who was killed at the very beginning of the attack.

This victory brought Castruccio such prominence that Uguccione became jealous and suspicious, and was possessed by the idea of destroying him. Uguccione was convinced that the triumphant victory had not increased his own power but in fact had decreased it. Consumed by these thoughts, he waited for the opportunity to strike at Castruccio, which presented itself when Pier Agnolo Micheli, a man of great accomplishment and repute, was murdered in Lucca. His murderer fled to Castruccio's house, and when the officers came to arrest the murderer, Castruccio sent them away. The murderer managed to escape with his help. Uguccione, who was in Pisa, heard of the incident and saw the perfect chance to even the score with Castruccio.13 He sent for his son Nieri, to whom he had given the rule of Lucca, and ordered him to invite Castruccio to a banquet in order to apprehend him there and put him to death. He sent for his son Nieri, to whom he had given the rule of Lucca, and ordered him to invite Castruccio to a banquet in order to apprehend him there and put him to death.

Castruccio gladly accepted the invitation to Nieri's palace, not suspecting foul play and was seized at the dinner. But Nieri feared that the people of Lucca would be outraged if he put Castruccio to death without justification, so he locked him in a dungeon and waited for his father to send word on what he should do next. Uguccione was furious at his son's wavering and cowardice, and set out from Pisa with four hundred hors.e.m.e.n to bring the matter to a conclusion. But he had not yet reached Bagni14 when the Pisans took up arms, killed his deputy and all the members of Uguccione's family in Pisa, and made Count Gaddo della Gherardesca their new lord. when the Pisans took up arms, killed his deputy and all the members of Uguccione's family in Pisa, and made Count Gaddo della Gherardesca their new lord.15 Uguccione heard the news from Pisa before he arrived in Lucca, but he knew that it would be unwise to turn back and give Lucca the opportunity to imitate Pisa's example and close its gates to him too. However, the people of Lucca had also heard the news, and despite Uguccione's arrival seized the opportunity to try to free Castruccio. They flocked to the town squares to denounce Uguccione, took up arms, and began to stir up unrest, demanding that Castruccio be released. Uguccione, fearing the turn of events, freed him, upon which Castruccio immediately rejoined his allies. With the support of the populace, he attacked Uguccione, who was compelled to flee with his men, escaping to Lombardy to the domain of the Princes della Scala, where in due course he died in poverty16 From being a prisoner, Castruccio now practically became prince of Lucca. With the help of his partisans and the populace's renewed favor, he was elected captain general of the army for a year. He was determined to increase his standing even further through war, and set out to win back for Lucca many of the towns that had revolted after Uguccione had been driven out. He marched on Sarzana with the backing of the Pisans, with whom Castruccio had formed an alliance, and during the siege built a fortress that was later walled in by the Florentines and is today known as Sarzanello.17 Within two months he had conquered Sarzana, and then went on to occupy Ma.s.sa, Carrara, and Lavenza. Soon all of Lunigiana was his, and to secure the mountain pa.s.s that led from Lombardy to Lunigiana he stormed Pontremoli, driving out Messer Anastagio Palavisini, who was its prince. When Castruccio returned victorious to Lucca and was greeted by large crowds, he felt the time had come to make himself prince, and with the support of some of the foremost men of Lucca-Pazzino dal Poggio, Puccinello dal Portico, Frances...o...b..ccansacchi, and Cecco Guinigi-all of whom he had bribed, he made himself lord of Lucca, and then in a solemn ceremony was elected prince by the people. Within two months he had conquered Sarzana, and then went on to occupy Ma.s.sa, Carrara, and Lavenza. Soon all of Lunigiana was his, and to secure the mountain pa.s.s that led from Lombardy to Lunigiana he stormed Pontremoli, driving out Messer Anastagio Palavisini, who was its prince. When Castruccio returned victorious to Lucca and was greeted by large crowds, he felt the time had come to make himself prince, and with the support of some of the foremost men of Lucca-Pazzino dal Poggio, Puccinello dal Portico, Frances...o...b..ccansacchi, and Cecco Guinigi-all of whom he had bribed, he made himself lord of Lucca, and then in a solemn ceremony was elected prince by the people.18 When King Frederick of Bavaria, the Holy Roman Emperor, came to Italy to claim his imperial crown, Castruccio offered his allegiance. He rode out to meet him with a cavalry of five hundred, leaving Pagolo Guinigi, who was held in high esteem by the people in memory of his father, in charge of Lucca. Frederick received Castruccio with much ceremony, bestowing on him an array of privileges and making him his governor in Tuscany19 In the meantime, the Pisans had expelled Gaddo della Gherardesca, In the meantime, the Pisans had expelled Gaddo della Gherardesca,20 and, fearing his retaliation, had turned to Frederick, who appointed Castruccio as prince of Pisa. The people of Pisa accepted Castruccio as their new ruler, as he was a Ghibelline who could keep them secure from the Guelph faction, and from the Florentines. and, fearing his retaliation, had turned to Frederick, who appointed Castruccio as prince of Pisa. The people of Pisa accepted Castruccio as their new ruler, as he was a Ghibelline who could keep them secure from the Guelph faction, and from the Florentines.

When Frederick returned to Germany, leaving a governor in Rome, all the Tuscan and Lombardian Ghibellines who were his followers turned to Castruccio for help, each promising to support him with their cities' forces if Castruccio would help them regain power. Among these were Matteo Guidi, Nardo Scolari, Lapo Uberti, Gerozzo Nardi, and Piero Buonaccorsi, all Ghibellines, and Florentine exiles. Castruccio's design was, by combining his forces with theirs, to become prince of all Tuscany. In order to strengthen his position even further, he allied himself with Matteo Visconti, the prince of Milan,21 and began arming Lucca and its territories. As Lucca had five city gates, he divided its territories into five sections, which he armed and put under captains and banners so that he could swiftly and with ease bring together twenty thousand men, not counting those he could call on from Pisa. and began arming Lucca and its territories. As Lucca had five city gates, he divided its territories into five sections, which he armed and put under captains and banners so that he could swiftly and with ease bring together twenty thousand men, not counting those he could call on from Pisa.

It was at this time that Matteo Visconti was attacked by the Guelphs of Piacenza, who had ousted the Ghibellines with the help of forces sent by Florence and King Roberto of Naples. Visconti asked Castruccio to attack Florence so that the Florentines, forced to defend their homes, would withdraw their army from Lombardy Castruccio obliged, and marched on Valdarno with a large army, occupying Fucecchio and San Miniato,22 causing great damage to the land and forcing the Florentines to withdraw their men from the battle with Visconti. causing great damage to the land and forcing the Florentines to withdraw their men from the battle with Visconti.

But as the Florentine army marched back toward Florence, an emergency forced Castruccio to return to Lucca. The Poggio family had been powerful enough to make Castruccio not only a great man, but prince. But now they felt that they had not been sufficiently rewarded, and joined with other families of Lucca to trigger a revolt to topple Castruccio. One morning they seized the opportunity, killed Castruccio's chief magistrate, and incited the populace to rise up. But Stefano di Poggio, an old and peaceable man who had not taken part in the conspiracy, stepped forward, and with his authority compelled the conspirators to lay down their arms, offering to act as mediator with Castruccio and to ensure that he would grant them what they demanded. The conspirators, however, laid down their arms with no greater prudence than they had taken them up in the first place, for when news of the conspiracy reached Castruccio, he immediately headed back to Lucca with some of his soldiers, leaving Pagolo Guinigi in charge of the rest. In Lucca, Castruccio was taken aback to find that the uprising had subsided, but still took the precaution of posting armed men throughout the city. Stefano di Poggio, who was certain that Castruccio would be obliged to him for his intercession, stepped before him, pleading clemency not for himself, as he felt he had nothing to fear, but for the other members of his family. He entreated Castruccio to pardon the recklessness of youth, and reminded him of the favors and friendship that the di Poggio family had accorded him. Castruccio replied with grace, rea.s.suring the old man and declaring that he was happier at finding the uprising abated than he had been angry at hearing of its outbreak. He asked Stefano to have everyone come to him, affirming that he thanked G.o.d for the opportunity to demonstrate his clemency and charity. a.s.sured by Stefano, they all came, and Castruccio had every one of them, including Stefano, seized and killed.23 The Florentines had in the meantime retaken San Miniato. But Castruccio felt he should put an end to the war, as he knew he could not venture far from Lucca until he had secured peace. He appealed to the Florentines for a truce and found them quite willing to accept, as they were exhausted and wanted