The English Language Part 26

VERBS.

_Mood._--The subjunctive mood that in the present English (with the exception of the conjugation of the verb substantive) differs from the indicative only in the third person singular, was in Anglo-Saxon inflected as follows:

_Indicative Mood._

_Pres. Sing._ 1. Lufige. _Plur._ 1. } 2. Lufast. 2. } Lufia.

3. Lufa. 3. }

_Subjunctive Mood._

_Pres. Sing._ 1.} _Plur._ 1. } 2.} Lufige. 2. } Lufion.

3.} 3. }

The Saxon infinitive ended in _-an_ (_lufian_), and besides this there was a so-called gerundial form, to _lufigenne_. {116}

_Tense._--In regard to tense, the Anglo-Saxon coincided with the English.

The present language has two tenses, the present and the past; the Saxon had no more. This past tense the modern English forms either by addition (_love_, _loved_), or by change (_fall_, _fell_). So did the Anglo-Saxons.

_Number and Person._--In the present English the termination -_eth_ (_moveth_) is antiquated. In Anglo-Saxon it was the only form recognized.

In English the plural number (indicative as well as subjunctive) has no distinguishing inflection. It was not so in Anglo-Saxon. There, although the _persons_ were identical in form, the _numbers_ were distinguished by the termination -_a_ for the indicative, and -_n_ for the subjunctive.

(_See above._) For certain forms in the second conjugation, see the remarks on the forms _drunk_ and _drank_, in Part IV.

Such are the chief points in the declension of nouns and the conjugation of verbs that give a difference of character between the ancient Anglo-Saxon and the modern English: and it has already been stated that the difference between the New and the Old German, the Dutch and the Frisian, the Italian, &c., and the Latin, the Romaic and the Greek, &c., are precisely similar.

How far two languages pa.s.s with equal rapidity from their ancient to their modern, from their inflected to their uninflected state (in other words, how far all languages alter at the same rate), is a question that will be noticed elsewhere. At present, it is sufficient to say, that (just as we should expect _a priori_) languages do _not_ alter at the same rate.

Akin to the last question is a second one: viz.: how far the rate of change in a given language can be accelerated by external circ.u.mstances. This second question bears immediately upon the history of the English language.

The grammar of the current idiom compared with the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon is simplified. How far was this simplification of the grammar promoted by the Norman Conquest. The current views exaggerate the influence of the Norman Conquest and of French connexions. The remark of Mr. Price in his Preface to Warton, acceded to by Mr. Hallam in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe, is, that every one of the {117} other Low Germanic languages (affected by nothing corresponding to the Norman Conquest) displays the same simplification of grammar as the Anglo-Saxon (affected by the Norman Conquest) displays. Confirmatory of this remark, it may be added, that compared with the Icelandic, the Danish and Swedish do the same. Derogatory to it is the comparatively complex grammar of the _new_ German, compared, not only with the Old High German, but with the Moeso-Gothic. An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the present section and introduce the next.

"Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to determine the commencement of the English language: not so much, as in those on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to p.r.o.nounce why it should pa.s.s for a separate language, rather than a modification or simplification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English:--1. By contracting and otherwise modifying the p.r.o.nunciation and orthography of words. 2. By omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about so gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, as to whether some compositions shall pa.s.s for the latest offspring of the mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250."--Chapter i. 47.

-- 176. At a given period, then, the Anglo-Saxon of the standard, and (if the expression may be used) cla.s.sical authors, such as Caedmon, Alfred, aelfric, &c., had undergone such a change as to induce the scholars of the present age to denominate it, not Saxon, but _Semi_-Saxon. It had ceased to be genuine Saxon, but had not yet become English. In certain parts of the kingdom, where the mode of speech {118} changed more rapidly than elsewhere, the Semi-Saxon stage of our language came earlier. It was, as it were, precipitated.

The History of King Leir and his Daughters is found in two forms. Between these there is a difference either of dialect or of date, and possibly of both. Each, however, is Semi-Saxon. The extracts are made from Thorpe's a.n.a.lecta Anglo-Saxonica, p. 143.

Bladud hafde ene sune, Bladud hadde one sone, Leir was ihaten; Leir was ihote, Efter his fader daie, After his fader he held is lond, He heold is drihlice lond, In his owene hond, Somed an his live, Ilaste his lif-dages, Sixti winter. Sixti winter.

He makade ane riche burh, He makede on riche borh, urh radfulle his crafte, orh wis.e.m.e.nne reade, And he heo lette nemnen, And hine lette nemni, Efter him seolvan; After him seolve; Kaer-Leir hehte e burh. Kair-Leir hehte e borh.

Leof heo wes an kinge, Leof he was an kinge; a we, an ure leod-quide, e we, on ure speche, Leir-chestre clepiad, Le-chestre cleopie, Geare a an holde dawon. In an eolde daiye.

The Grave, a poetical fragment, the latter part of the Saxon Chronicle, a Homily for St. Edmund's Day (given in the a.n.a.lecta), and above all the printed extracts of the poem of Layamon, are the more accessible specimens of the Semi-Saxon. The Ormulum, although in many points English rather than Saxon, retains the dual number of the Anglo-Saxon p.r.o.nouns. However, lest too much stress be laid upon this circ.u.mstance, the epistolary character of the Ormulum must be borne in mind.

It is very evident that if, even in the present day, there were spoken in some remote district the language of Alfred and aelfric, such a mode of speech would be called, not Modern English, but Anglo-Saxon. This teaches us that the stage of language is to be measured, not by its date, but by its structure. Hence, Saxon ends and Semi-Saxon begins, not at a given year, A.D., but at that time {119} (whenever it be) when certain grammatical inflections disappear, and certain characters of a more advanced stage are introduced.

Some amongst others, of the earlier changes of the standard Anglo-Saxon are,

1. The subst.i.tution of -_an_ for -_as_, in the plural of substantives, _munucan_ for _munucas_ (monks); and, conversely, the subst.i.tution of -_s_ for -_n_, as _steorres_ for _steorran_ (stars). The use of -_s_, as the sign of the plural, without respect to gender, or declension, may be one of those changes that the Norman Conquest forwarded; -_s_ being the sign of the plural in Anglo-Norman.

2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, _aet ylc_ for _aet ylce_; _sone_ for _sunu_; _name_ for _nama_; _dages_ for _dagas_.

3. The subst.i.tution of -_n_ for -_m_ in the dative case, _hwilon_ for _hwilum_.

4. The ejection of the -_n_ of the infinitive mood, _c.u.mme_ for _c.u.man_ (_to come_), _nemne_ for _nemnen_ (_to name_).

5. The ejection of -_en_ in the participle pa.s.sive, _I-hote_ for _gehaten_ (_called_, _hight_).

6. The gerundial termination -_enne_, superseded by the infinitive termination -_en_; as _to lufian_ for _to lufienne_, or _lufigenne_.

7. The subst.i.tution of -_en_ for -_a_ in the persons plural of verbs; _hi clepen_ (_they call_) for _hi clypia_, &c.

The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of forms like those above const.i.tute Semi-Saxon in contradistinction to standard Saxon, cla.s.sical Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon proper.

-- 177. _Old English Stage._--Further changes convert Semi-Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are the following:--

1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -_um_, and the subst.i.tution of the preposition _to_ and the plural sign -_s_; as _to smiths_ for _smium_. Of the dative singular the -_e_ is retained (_ende_, _worde_); but it is by no means certain that, although recognized in writing, it was recognized in p.r.o.nunciation also.

2. The ejection of -_es_ in the genitive singular whenever the {120} preposition _of_ came before it; _G.o.des love_ (_G.o.d's love_), but the _love of G.o.d_, and not the _love of G.o.des_.

3. The syllable _-es_ as a sign of the genitive case extended to all genders and to all declensions; _heart's_ for _heortan_; _sun's_ for _sunnan_.

4. The same in respect to the plural number; _sterres_ for _steorran_; _sons_ for _suna_.

5. The ejection of _-na_ in the genitive plural; as _of tunges'_ for _tungena_.

6. The use of the word _the_, as an article, instead of _se_, &c.

The preponderance of the forms above (and not their occasional occurrence) const.i.tutes old English in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.

The following extract from Henry's history (vol. viii. append. iv.) is the proclamation of Henry III. to the people of Huntingdonshire, A.D. 1258. It currently pa.s.ses for the earliest specimen of English.

"Henry, thurg G.o.des fultome, King on Engleneloande, lhoaurd on Yrloand, Duke on Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl on Anjou, send I greting, to alle hise holde, ilaerde & ilewerde on Huntingdonschiere.

"That witen ge well alle, thaet we willen & unnen (grant) thaet ure raedesmen alle other, the moare del of heom, thaet beoth ichosen thurg us and thurg thaet loandes-folk on ure Kuneriche, habbith idon, and schullen don, in the worthnes of G.o.d, and ure threowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide raedesmen, beo stedfaest and ilestinde in alle thinge abutan aende, and we heaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe thaet heo us ogen, thet heo stede-feslliche healden & weren to healden & to swerien the isetnesses thet beon makede and beo to makien, thurg than toforen iseide raedesmen, other thurg the moare del of heom alswo, also hit is before iseide. And thet aeheother helpe thet for to done bitham ilche other, aganes alle men in alle thet heo ogt for to done, and to foangen. And noan ne of mine loande, ne of egetewhere, thurg this besigte, muge beon ilet other iwersed on oniewise. And gif oni ether onie c.u.men her ongenes, we willen & heaten, thaet alle ure treowe heom healden deadlichistan. And for thaet we willen thaet this beo staedfast and lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, iseined with ure seel, to halden amanges gew ine hord. Witnes us-selven aet Lundaen, thaene egetetenthe day on the monthe of Octobr, in the two and fowertigthe geare of ure crunning."

-- 178. The songs amongst the political verses printed by the Camden Society, the romance of Havelok the Dane, {121} William and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, King Horn, Ipomedon, and the King of Tars; and, amongst the longer works, Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and the poems of Robert of Bourn (Brunn), are (amongst others) Old English. Broadly speaking, the _Old_ English may be said to begin with the reign of Henry III., and to end with that of Edward III.

In the Old English the following forms predominate.

1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative p.r.o.noun, or definite article; _an_, _enne_, _aere_, _am_;--in contradistinction to the Middle English.

2. The presence of the dative singular in _-e_; _ende_, _smithe_;--_ditto_.

3. The existence of a genitive plural in _-r_ or _-ra_; _heora_, theirs; _aller_, of all;--_ditto_. This with substantives and adjectives is less common.

4. The subst.i.tution of _heo_ for _they_, of _heora_ for _their_, of _hem_ for _them_;--in contradistinction to the later stages of English, and in contradistinction to old Lowland _Scotch_. (See Chapter III.)

5. A more frequent use of _min_ and _thin_, for _my_ and _thy_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English.

6. The use of _heo_ for _she_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English and old Lowland _Scotch_.