The Battle For Christmas Part 11

46. Edmund Alton, "The Children's Christmas Club of Washington City," Edmund Alton, "The Children's Christmas Club of Washington City," St. Nicholas St. Nicholas 15 (1887), 146149. 15 (1887), 146149.

47. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1851; ibid., Dec. 29, 1852. For 1853, see ibid., Dec. 27, 1853.

48. The The Tribune Tribune of Dec. 26, 1853, published an extensive list of the charitable agencies that had held open house the previous day-twenty in all. of Dec. 26, 1853, published an extensive list of the charitable agencies that had held open house the previous day-twenty in all.

49. Ibid., Dec. 27, 1853. For a similar story about a Boston inst.i.tution, see "Christmas Eve at the Orphan Asylum," Ibid., Dec. 27, 1853. For a similar story about a Boston inst.i.tution, see "Christmas Eve at the Orphan Asylum," Child's Friend Child's Friend (Jan., 1856), 7779. (Jan., 1856), 7779.

50. There were three other reports of charity visitations in that same number of the There were three other reports of charity visitations in that same number of the Tribune Tribune. All three took place at inst.i.tutions for children: Randalls Island, the New York Juvenile Asylum (the children there were served a dinner "which they enjoyed in a manner that would have made many a street vagrant envious"), and the Girls' Industrial School.

51. See Richard Sennett, See Richard Sennett, Families Against the City: Middle-Cla.s.s Homes of Industrial Chicago, 18721890 Families Against the City: Middle-Cla.s.s Homes of Industrial Chicago, 18721890 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970). (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).

52. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1875; New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 27, 1875; Louisa May Alcott to the Alcott family, Dec. 25, 1875, in Joel Myerson and Daniel Shealy, eds., The Selected Letters of Louisa May Alcott The Selected Letters of Louisa May Alcott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), 210213. That same year Alcott published a novel in which several children experience a perfect, present-filled Christmas: "'Now, I believe I've got every thing in the world that I want,'" one of them says. (Louisa May Alcott, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), 210213. That same year Alcott published a novel in which several children experience a perfect, present-filled Christmas: "'Now, I believe I've got every thing in the world that I want,'" one of them says. (Louisa May Alcott, Eight Cousins; or, The Aunt-Hill Eight Cousins; or, The Aunt-Hill [Boston, 1875], 226227.) [Boston, 1875], 226227.) 53. Edward W. Bok, "Complicating Christmas," Edward W. Bok, "Complicating Christmas," Ladies' Home Journal Ladies' Home Journal, Dec. 1897. For women's work at Christmas, see Leslie Bella, The Christmas Imperative: Leisure, Family and Women's Work The Christmas Imperative: Leisure, Family and Women's Work (Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood Pub., 1992). (Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood Pub., 1992).

54. Jackson Lears, Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 18801920 No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 18801920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Christopher Lasch, (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Christopher Lasch, The New Radicalism in America, 1889 The New Radicalism in America, 18891963: The Intellectual as a Social Type (New York: Knopf, 1965). For an example of the Social Gospel applied to Christmas, see George Hodges, "What the Christmas Spirit Saith unto the Churches," (New York: Knopf, 1965). For an example of the Social Gospel applied to Christmas, see George Hodges, "What the Christmas Spirit Saith unto the Churches," New England Magazine New England Magazine, Dec. 1896, 469476.

55. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1890.

56. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1891. The event was repeated only once, the following year. It is evident that this event was resented by the established charitable agencies, who saw it as drawing attention (and contributions) away from their own work. A representative of the Christmas Society told a reporter the following year, "The organized charities of the city say we have been the means of depriving them of subscriptions [i.e., contributions]." Rental of Madison Square Garden alone cost $800 (ibid., Dec. 27, 1892). Ibid., Dec. 26, 1891. The event was repeated only once, the following year. It is evident that this event was resented by the established charitable agencies, who saw it as drawing attention (and contributions) away from their own work. A representative of the Christmas Society told a reporter the following year, "The organized charities of the city say we have been the means of depriving them of subscriptions [i.e., contributions]." Rental of Madison Square Garden alone cost $800 (ibid., Dec. 27, 1892).

57. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1899. See also the 1901 report: "From the boxes many prominent people looked down upon the 3,000 Christmas diners, the majority of whom remained until the end of the entertainment." The article concluded with a list of prominent New Yorkers who "purchased boxes" for this event Ibid., Dec. 26, 1899. See also the 1901 report: "From the boxes many prominent people looked down upon the 3,000 Christmas diners, the majority of whom remained until the end of the entertainment." The article concluded with a list of prominent New Yorkers who "purchased boxes" for this event (New York Times (New York Times, Dec. 26, 1901).

58. New York World New York World, Dec. 26, 1899; quoted in Gilbert, "Friends or Dependents," 9.

59. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1902.

60. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1903. New York's mayor, Seth Low, was in attendance on this occasion.

61. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1905. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1905.

62. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1895. The article continues: "After eating three plates of turkey and as many dishes of sauce the soup is called for, and when they have got outside of one or two bowls they stuff their pockets with candy, apples, nuts, bananas and other good things and hasten to the gymnasium, where they exercise vigorously for an hour.... All these customs were kept strictly at the dinner last night." For other newsboys' dinners given by Fliess, see ibid., Dec. 26, 1895; New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1899 (with descriptions of pie-throwing in previous years); New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1901 (a dinner given by Frank Tilford, who was quoted as saying: "Who is there that could watch these little fellows enjoying themselves without feeling happy?" Nevertheless, "twelve policemen were present to maintain order." New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 26, 1908 (a history of the newsboys' Christmas dinners).

63. There may have been an additional reason for the newsboys' preferences: They were rejecting the "bourgeois" practice of separating sweet dishes from the rest of the food as a distinct course termed "dessert." There may have been an additional reason for the newsboys' preferences: They were rejecting the "bourgeois" practice of separating sweet dishes from the rest of the food as a distinct course termed "dessert."

64. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1876.

Chapter 7.

1. "Christmas at the South," "Christmas at the South," New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1867. Over subsequent decades, Southerners themselves evoked similar recollections of Christmas as part of the psychological a.r.s.enal they employed to plead with Northern whites for reconciliation along cla.s.s and racial lines (which, they implicitly argued, ought to transcend the earlier opposition along regional lines). See, for example, three fictional works by Thomas Nelson Page: A Captured Santa Claus A Captured Santa Claus (New York; 1902; first published in 1891); "Polly: A Christmas Recollection," in (New York; 1902; first published in 1891); "Polly: A Christmas Recollection," in In Ole Virginia; or, Ma.r.s.e Chan and Other Stories In Ole Virginia; or, Ma.r.s.e Chan and Other Stories (New York, 1887), 187230; and "The Christmas Peace," in (New York, 1887), 187230; and "The Christmas Peace," in Bred in the Bone Bred in the Bone (New York, 1904), 183234. See also Joel Chandler Harris, "A Child of Christmas: A Christmas Tale of North and South," in (New York, 1904), 183234. See also Joel Chandler Harris, "A Child of Christmas: A Christmas Tale of North and South," in The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (New York, 1902), 71151. (New York, 1902), 71151.

2. John Esten Cooke, "Christmas Time in Old Virginia," John Esten Cooke, "Christmas Time in Old Virginia," Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries 10 (1883), 443459; the "Bracebridge Hall" pa.s.sage is on p. 451. Another account, published in 1897 by Thomas Nelson Page, included, just as Irving had done, an extended description of the antic.i.p.ation of the guests who were being driven in carriages to spend Christmas in their old family mansion. (The ill.u.s.tration for this section-it is captioned "At last the 'big gate' is reached"-was surely intended to evoke the highly popular ill.u.s.tration that Randolph Caledecott prepared for the 1875 edition of 10 (1883), 443459; the "Bracebridge Hall" pa.s.sage is on p. 451. Another account, published in 1897 by Thomas Nelson Page, included, just as Irving had done, an extended description of the antic.i.p.ation of the guests who were being driven in carriages to spend Christmas in their old family mansion. (The ill.u.s.tration for this section-it is captioned "At last the 'big gate' is reached"-was surely intended to evoke the highly popular ill.u.s.tration that Randolph Caledecott prepared for the 1875 edition of Bracebridge Hall.) Bracebridge Hall.) It is no coincidence that Page, who helped invent the idea of the old Southern Christmas, was also largely responsible for inventing the myth of Old Dixie. It is no coincidence that Page, who helped invent the idea of the old Southern Christmas, was also largely responsible for inventing the myth of Old Dixie.

3. "Abolition of Christmas," "Abolition of Christmas," Evangelical and Literary Magazine Evangelical and Literary Magazine (Richmond) 6 (Dec. 1823), 636639. (Richmond) 6 (Dec. 1823), 636639.

4. Charles G. Parsons, Charles G. Parsons, An Inside View of Slavery: A Tour Among the Planters An Inside View of Slavery: A Tour Among the Planters (Boston, 1855; reprinted, Savannah, 1974), 27 (delirium tremens); Nancy Chappelear Baird, ed., (Boston, 1855; reprinted, Savannah, 1974), 27 (delirium tremens); Nancy Chappelear Baird, ed., Journals of Amanda Virginia Edmonds, La.s.s of the Mosby Confederacy, 18591867 Journals of Amanda Virginia Edmonds, La.s.s of the Mosby Confederacy, 18591867 (Stephens City, Va., 1984), 910 (1857), 64 (1861); Mary A. Livermore, (Stephens City, Va., 1984), 910 (1857), 64 (1861); Mary A. Livermore, The Story of My Life The Story of My Life (Hartford, 1897), 210 (drinking children). See also Baird, (Hartford, 1897), 210 (drinking children). See also Baird, Edmonds Edmonds, 243 (1866): "'Christmas Gift' is uttered by all tongues this morning, then nog, breakfast, and almost tight!"

5. Norfolk Norfolk Public Ledger Public Ledger, Dec. 26, 2876. Norfolk was a port town with a naval yard and many saloons; it experienced a race riot in 1866. See George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 31. (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 31.

6. Journals and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 17721774 Journals and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 17721774 (Williamsburg, Va., 1945), 52. The Robert E. Lee letter is quoted by James M. MacPherson, (Williamsburg, Va., 1945), 52. The Robert E. Lee letter is quoted by James M. MacPherson, New York Review of Books New York Review of Books 42 (Dec. 21, 1995), 15. For evidence that Christmas misrule was common in parts of the South at least as early as the late seventeenth century, see Michel Sobel's provocative book, 42 (Dec. 21, 1995), 15. For evidence that Christmas misrule was common in parts of the South at least as early as the late seventeenth century, see Michel Sobel's provocative book, The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), 37, 67, and 263n13. (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), 37, 67, and 263n13.

7. M. M. Folsom, "Christmas at Brockton Plantation," M. M. Folsom, "Christmas at Brockton Plantation," Southern Bivuoac Southern Bivuoac n.s. 1 (1886), 483489; quoted pa.s.sage is on p. 486. n.s. 1 (1886), 483489; quoted pa.s.sage is on p. 486.

8. William Nevison Blow, ma.n.u.script Memoir, Archives of the College of William and Mary. This item was brought to my attention by Patrick Breen. William Nevison Blow, ma.n.u.script Memoir, Archives of the College of William and Mary. This item was brought to my attention by Patrick Breen.

9. Susan Dabney Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter Memorials of a Southern Planter (3rd ed., Baltimore, 1888), 160161. (3rd ed., Baltimore, 1888), 160161.

10. Quoted in Abe C. Ravitz, "John Pierpont and the Slaves' Christmas," Quoted in Abe C. Ravitz, "John Pierpont and the Slaves' Christmas," Phylon Phylon 21 (1960), 384385; also quoted in Eugene D. Genovese, 21 (1960), 384385; also quoted in Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 578. The one general exception to the pattern of free time involves house slaves, whose labor (unlike that of field hands) was needed at Christmas. (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 578. The one general exception to the pattern of free time involves house slaves, whose labor (unlike that of field hands) was needed at Christmas.

11. See also the testimony of Henry Cheatam, who attributed the policy to a mean overseer: "[D]ere weren't no celebratin', 'ceptin' at hog killin'. Dat was de biggest dat of de year." Quoted in Norman R. Yetman, ed., See also the testimony of Henry Cheatam, who attributed the policy to a mean overseer: "[D]ere weren't no celebratin', 'ceptin' at hog killin'. Dat was de biggest dat of de year." Quoted in Norman R. Yetman, ed., Life Under the "Peculiar Inst.i.tution": Selections from the Slave Narrative Collection Life Under the "Peculiar Inst.i.tution": Selections from the Slave Narrative Collection (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 56. A few planters-they seem to have cl.u.s.tered in the "new" States from Alabama to Texas-allowed no holiday at all. An ex-slave from Alabama remembered once having to build a lime kiln at Christmas (ibid., 147). An ex-slave from Oklahoma recalled that her owner "didn't [even] tell us anything about Christmas ..., and all we done was work" (ibid., 329). The same informant also argued: "The way he made the Negroes work so hard. Old Master must have been trying to get rich" (ibid., 326). A planter's wife in Texas justified this policy by telling her slaves that "n.i.g.g.e.rs was made to work for white folks." But the powerful hold of the holiday even within this family is demonstrated by the fact that on at least one occasion another white woman living in the household secretly baked two Christmas cakes for the slaves (ibid., 70). (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 56. A few planters-they seem to have cl.u.s.tered in the "new" States from Alabama to Texas-allowed no holiday at all. An ex-slave from Alabama remembered once having to build a lime kiln at Christmas (ibid., 147). An ex-slave from Oklahoma recalled that her owner "didn't [even] tell us anything about Christmas ..., and all we done was work" (ibid., 329). The same informant also argued: "The way he made the Negroes work so hard. Old Master must have been trying to get rich" (ibid., 326). A planter's wife in Texas justified this policy by telling her slaves that "n.i.g.g.e.rs was made to work for white folks." But the powerful hold of the holiday even within this family is demonstrated by the fact that on at least one occasion another white woman living in the household secretly baked two Christmas cakes for the slaves (ibid., 70).

12. For example, Mingo White recalled: "On Christmas we didn't have to do no work, no more'n feed the stock and do de li'l work round de house. When we got through with dat we had de rest of de day to run round wherever we wanted to go. 'Course, we had to get permission from de master" (ibid., 314). See also Tatler, "Management of Negroes," in For example, Mingo White recalled: "On Christmas we didn't have to do no work, no more'n feed the stock and do de li'l work round de house. When we got through with dat we had de rest of de day to run round wherever we wanted to go. 'Course, we had to get permission from de master" (ibid., 314). See also Tatler, "Management of Negroes," in Southern Cultivator Southern Cultivator 8 (1850), 162164: "Believing that the strolling about of negroes for a week at a time during what are called Christmas Holidays is productive of much evil, the writer has set his face against the custom. Christmas is observed as a Sacred Festival. On that day as good a dinner as the plantation will afford is served for the negroes, and they all sit down to a common table, but the next day go to work. From considerations both of morality and needful rest and recreation to the negro, I much prefer giving a week in July, when the crop is laid by, to giving three days at Christmas." Quoted in James O. Breeden, ed., 8 (1850), 162164: "Believing that the strolling about of negroes for a week at a time during what are called Christmas Holidays is productive of much evil, the writer has set his face against the custom. Christmas is observed as a Sacred Festival. On that day as good a dinner as the plantation will afford is served for the negroes, and they all sit down to a common table, but the next day go to work. From considerations both of morality and needful rest and recreation to the negro, I much prefer giving a week in July, when the crop is laid by, to giving three days at Christmas." Quoted in James O. Breeden, ed., Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 258. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 258.

13. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 281. There was at least one ritual, practiced in the "low country" of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, that allowed slaves to exert at least symbolic control over the length of the holidays: They were to last as long as the "Yule log" continued to burn in one piece. Slaves would choose the largest possible tree, chop it down a year in advance, soak it in water for the entire year, and light it early on Christmas Day in the hall of the Big House, where it would be the "back-log." The holidays would be over when the Yule log finally burned into two pieces-a process that could take a full week. This ritual was recalled by Booker T. Washington in "Christmas Days in Old Virginia" (1907), in Louis R. Harlan, ed., The Booker?. Washington Papers The Booker?. Washington Papers (14 vols., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 197289), 1, 394397 (Yule log is on p. 397). See also John Williamson Palmer, "Old Maryland Homes and Ways," (14 vols., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 197289), 1, 394397 (Yule log is on p. 397). See also John Williamson Palmer, "Old Maryland Homes and Ways," Century Century 49 (1894), 260; and Rebecca Cameron, "Christmas on an Old Plantation," in 49 (1894), 260; and Rebecca Cameron, "Christmas on an Old Plantation," in The Ladies' Home Journal The Ladies' Home Journal (Dec. 1891), 58. This ritual was apparently devised by literary-minded Anglophile planters; it derived from an English custom in which tenants and servants were permitted to eat at the patron's table as long as the Yule log burned. (Dec. 1891), 58. This ritual was apparently devised by literary-minded Anglophile planters; it derived from an English custom in which tenants and servants were permitted to eat at the patron's table as long as the Yule log burned.

14. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 574575. I have not encountered a single case in which slaves were unambiguously deprived of their customary right to freedom from labor at Christmas. The two cases most nearly approaching this both seem to refer to the deprivation of other privileges. In 1854, James Henry Hammond denied slaves Christmas celebrations at his plantation, on account of a poor (wasted) harvest. He wrote in his record book on Dec. 25, 1854: "No festivities, crops being lost-negroes not having done their duty." (Norrece T. Jones, Jr., Born a Child of Freedom Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina Born a Child of Freedom Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina [Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990], 199.) In 1858 or 1859, on Robert Allston's South Carolina rice plantation, two slaves "were made to run the gauntlet for taking a hog out of the pen. The whole plantation being shared out of Xmas until they found out the crimnal [sic]." (J. H. Easterby, ed., [Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990], 199.) In 1858 or 1859, on Robert Allston's South Carolina rice plantation, two slaves "were made to run the gauntlet for taking a hog out of the pen. The whole plantation being shared out of Xmas until they found out the crimnal [sic]." (J. H. Easterby, ed., The South Carolina Rice Plantation as Revealed in the Papers of Robert F.W. Allston The South Carolina Rice Plantation as Revealed in the Papers of Robert F.W. Allston (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 34. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 34.

15. Frederick Dougla.s.s, Frederick Dougla.s.s, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Dougla.s.s, An American Slave Narrative of the Life of Frederick Dougla.s.s, An American Slave (Boston, 1845), 7475. This is the first version of Dougla.s.s's autobiography; his description of Christmas is different in subsequent versions. (Boston, 1845), 7475. This is the first version of Dougla.s.s's autobiography; his description of Christmas is different in subsequent versions.

16. For example, one slave owner "followed the common practice of paying his slaves if they chose to work during the holidays when they would otherwise be free. [In 1853 he] paid several slaves fifty cents a day for splitting rails, hauling cotton and corn, and operating the plantation cotton gin." Orville W. Taylor, For example, one slave owner "followed the common practice of paying his slaves if they chose to work during the holidays when they would otherwise be free. [In 1853 he] paid several slaves fifty cents a day for splitting rails, hauling cotton and corn, and operating the plantation cotton gin." Orville W. Taylor, Negro Slavery in Arkansas Negro Slavery in Arkansas (Durham, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1958), 207. (Durham, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1958), 207.

17. Jones, Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 7071.

18. Solomon Northup, Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave (Auburn & Buffalo, 1854), 214; Irwin Russell, "Christmas-Night in the Quarters," in (Auburn & Buffalo, 1854), 214; Irwin Russell, "Christmas-Night in the Quarters," in Poems by Irwin Russell Poems by Irwin Russell (New York, 1888), 1 ("high carnival"); the Reverend Bayard R. Hall, D.D., (New York, 1888), 1 ("high carnival"); the Reverend Bayard R. Hall, D.D., Frank Freeman's Barber Shop; A Tale Frank Freeman's Barber Shop; A Tale (New York, 1852), 103104 ("Ah! white man"), 109111 ("times of cramming"). See also Genovese, (New York, 1852), 103104 ("Ah! white man"), 109111 ("times of cramming"). See also Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 574. For one former slave's recollections, see John W. Bla.s.singame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 652653. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 652653.

19. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 578 (John Pierpont). See also Allen Parker, Recollections of Slavery Times Recollections of Slavery Times (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1895), 67. Several historians report that slave marriages were sometimes "grouped" at Christmas. See Blake Touchstone, "Planters and Slave Religion in the Deep South," in John B. Boles, ed., (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1895), 67. Several historians report that slave marriages were sometimes "grouped" at Christmas. See Blake Touchstone, "Planters and Slave Religion in the Deep South," in John B. Boles, ed., Masters & Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South 17401870 Masters & Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South 17401870 (Lexington, Ky., 1988), 124; and Ulrich?. Philips, (Lexington, Ky., 1988), 124; and Ulrich?. Philips, American Negro Slavery American Negro Slavery (New York: Appleton, 1918), 213. This claim is backed by the accounts of ex-slaves (e.g., Northup, (New York: Appleton, 1918), 213. This claim is backed by the accounts of ex-slaves (e.g., Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 221222) as well as by plantation records. One plantation diary from 185960 records seven slave marriages at a single Christmas (Easterby, Allston Allston, 453454).

20. Ravitz, "Pierpont," 384385; Thomas Bangs Thorpe, "Cotton and Its Cultivation," Ravitz, "Pierpont," 384385; Thomas Bangs Thorpe, "Cotton and Its Cultivation," Harper's New Monthly Magazine Harper's New Monthly Magazine 8 (1854), 447463 (449: "saturnalia of the Romans"); Hall, 8 (1854), 447463 (449: "saturnalia of the Romans"); Hall, Frank Freeman Frank Freeman, 102103 ("grand saturnalia"). For a concise account of slave revelry, see Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Inst.i.tution" in the Antebellum South Slave Religion: The "Invisible Inst.i.tution" in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 224. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 224.

21. For example, a Florida newspaper argued in 1857 that it was foolish to believe that the "idle, lounging, roving, drunken, and otherwise mischievous [Christmas] week fits the Negro in the least degree for the discharge of his duties." (Kenneth M. Stampp, For example, a Florida newspaper argued in 1857 that it was foolish to believe that the "idle, lounging, roving, drunken, and otherwise mischievous [Christmas] week fits the Negro in the least degree for the discharge of his duties." (Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Inst.i.tution: Slavery in the AnteBellum South The Peculiar Inst.i.tution: Slavery in the AnteBellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956), 170. (New York: Knopf, 1956), 170.

22. Quoted by Stampp, Quoted by Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 170, from De Bow's Review De Bow's Review 13 (1852), 193194. 13 (1852), 193194.

23. Dougla.s.s, Dougla.s.s, Narrative Narrative, 7576. I would agree with Eugene Genovese in taking issue with Dougla.s.s's claim: "Dougla.s.s was right in thinking that the holidays ... undermined the revolutionary impulse of the slaves, but he was wrong, I believe, in thinking that the cause lay in the slaves' being trapped in triviality and self-degradation." Rather, Genovese suggests that the counterrevolutionary effect of such "big times" was that they developed in slaves a patriarchal sense of "community with their white folks" (Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 580). On this this issue I disagree with Genovese, and I would add another point: Dougla.s.s was very much a man of bourgeois principles-for him, the loss of self-control through drinking and s.e.xual excess signified a loss of self-respect. Finally, Dougla.s.s's rhetoric was bound to appeal to the temperance-minded audience that const.i.tuted a substantial part of his intended Northern readership. issue I disagree with Genovese, and I would add another point: Dougla.s.s was very much a man of bourgeois principles-for him, the loss of self-control through drinking and s.e.xual excess signified a loss of self-respect. Finally, Dougla.s.s's rhetoric was bound to appeal to the temperance-minded audience that const.i.tuted a substantial part of his intended Northern readership.

24. Parker, Parker, Recollections Recollections, 6768; Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 161162. Alexander Barclay wrote in 1828 about slave life in Jamaica: "Such dances were formerly common, or I should rather say universal, at Christmas; but of late years have gone much out, owing to an idea impressed on the minds of the negroes, princ.i.p.ally I believe by the missionaries, that the season ought rather to be devoted to religious exercises. It is now considered more becoming to attend the places of worship, or to have private religious parties among themselves; and in pa.s.sing through a negro village on a Christmas night, it is more common to hear psalm-singing, than the sound of merriment. Alexander Barclay, A Practical View of the Present State of Slavery in the West Indies A Practical View of the Present State of Slavery in the West Indies (3rd ed., London, 1828), 1011. (3rd ed., London, 1828), 1011.

25. Phillips, Phillips, Slavery Slavery, 315; Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South My Life in the South (Salem, Ma.s.s., 1879), 35. (Salem, Ma.s.s., 1879), 35.

26. Parker, Parker, Recollections Recollections, 6768; see also Phillips, Slavery Slavery, 316318. The music at these revivals was limited to the human voice (and other parts of the body); musical instruments were prohibited for religious reasons.

27. Report by Harriet Ware, Dec. 26, 1862; quoted in Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed. Report by Harriet Ware, Dec. 26, 1862; quoted in Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed. Letters from Port Royal, Written at the Time of the Civil War Letters from Port Royal, Written at the Time of the Civil War (Boston, 1906), 124; Sallie Holley, (Boston, 1906), 124; Sallie Holley, A Life for Liberty: Anti-Slavery and Other Letters A Life for Liberty: Anti-Slavery and Other Letters (New York, 1899), 229230. (New York, 1899), 229230.

28. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 193 (also quoted in Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70). See also Charles L. Perdue, Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Philips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves [Charlottesvile: University Press of Virginia, 1976], 229. Stampp, [Charlottesvile: University Press of Virginia, 1976], 229. Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 166, offers good examples from the 1850s. The gifts on one plantation were unusual enough to become a subject of humorous comment: "Every woman got a handkerchief to tie up her hair. Every girl got a ribbon, every boy a ballow [i.e., Barlow] knife, and every man a shin plaster. De neighbors call de place, de Shin Plaster, Barlow, Bandana place" (Yetman, Selections Selections, 59).

29. Charles Kershaw [a factor] to Charlotte Ann Allston, Charleston, Nov. 29, 1815, in Easterby, Charles Kershaw [a factor] to Charlotte Ann Allston, Charleston, Nov. 29, 1815, in Easterby, Allston Allston, 359. Allston himself, writing in the 1830s, noted: "the plantation stock to furnish ... a beef for Christmas" (ibid., 257). Ravitz, "Pierpont," 384385); Ronald Killion and Charles Waller, eds., Slavery Time When I Was Chillun Down on Marster's Plantation: Interviews with Georgia Slaves Slavery Time When I Was Chillun Down on Marster's Plantation: Interviews with Georgia Slaves (Savannah: Library of Georgia, 1973), 11 (Georgia Baker); Northup, (Savannah: Library of Georgia, 1973), 11 (Georgia Baker); Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 215216. See also Sarah Virgil: "On Fourth of July and Christmas, Marster would give us the biggest kind of to-do. We always had more to eat than you ever saw on them days" (Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 141.) Slaves often provided their own food and drink, from stock they had raised, made, or sold on their own during the year; sometimes they simply stole the master's food. See, for example, Harriet A. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (ed. by Lydia Maria Child; Boston, 1861 [Cambridge, 1987 reprint; ed. Jean f.a.gan Yellin]), 180181. Compare a Christmas song recorded by Joel Chandler Harris in 1858: "Ho my Riley! dey eat en dey cram, / En bimeby [by-and-by] ole Miss'll be sendin' out de dram." (ed. by Lydia Maria Child; Boston, 1861 [Cambridge, 1987 reprint; ed. Jean f.a.gan Yellin]), 180181. Compare a Christmas song recorded by Joel Chandler Harris in 1858: "Ho my Riley! dey eat en dey cram, / En bimeby [by-and-by] ole Miss'll be sendin' out de dram."

30. Thomas Bangs Thorpe, "Christmas in the South," Thomas Bangs Thorpe, "Christmas in the South," Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper 5 (Dec. 26, 1857), 62. 5 (Dec. 26, 1857), 62.

31. Yetman, Yetman, Selections Selections, 73 ("barrels o' apples"); Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70, quoted from the Reverend Irving Lowery, Life on the Old Plantation Life on the Old Plantation (Columbia, S.C., 1911), 13, 37, 67. (Columbia, S.C., 1911), 13, 37, 67.

32. This slave was speaking in the month of June, so he had not eaten meat for almost half a year. His remark was made to Charles Ball, and reported in Ball, This slave was speaking in the month of June, so he had not eaten meat for almost half a year. His remark was made to Charles Ball, and reported in Ball, Slavery Slavery, 7980. Norrece T. Jones, who has measured Christmas meat in the context of "ordinary" slave diet on one South Carolina plantation, writes that over a period of nine months, "workers received meat from their master during four weeks only" (Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 49).

33. Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 1 Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 166; anonymous Mississippi planter, "Management of Negroes upon Southern Estates," De Bow's Review 10 De Bow's Review 10 (1851), 621627; quoted in Breeden, (1851), 621627; quoted in Breeden, Advice Among Masters Advice Among Masters, 253254 ("whipping and forfeiture"); Jesse H. Turner, "Management of Negroes," in South-Western Farmer 1 South-Western Farmer 1 (1842), 114115 ("no matter by whom"); quoted ibid, 257258. (1842), 114115 ("no matter by whom"); quoted ibid, 257258.

34. Jones, Jones, Child of Freedom Child of Freedom, 70. See also Ball, Slavery in the United States Slavery in the United States, 206207.

35. Genovese, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 579; E. P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," in Journal of Social History Journal of Social History, vol. 7 (1974), 382405 (see esp. 390394); quoted in U. B. Phillips, "Plantations with Slave Labor and Free," American Historical Review American Historical Review 30 (1925), 742. 30 (1925), 742.

36. Cicely Cawthon, in Killion and Waller, Cicely Cawthon, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 40 ("something else!"); Georgia Baker, ibid, 1112 ("Ma.r.s.e Alec"). See also Martha Colquitt, in Yetman, Selections Selections, 62: "On Christmas mornin' all of us would come up to de yard back of de Big House and Ma.r.s.e Billie and de overseer handed out presents for all."

37. Smedes, Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 161; Bessie M. Henry, "A Yankee Schoolmistress Discovers Virginia," Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute Historical Collections Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute Historical Collections 101 (1965), 121132; "take the kitchen" quotation is on p. 129; Blow, "Memoir;" Mariah Calloway, in Killion and Waller, 101 (1965), 121132; "take the kitchen" quotation is on p. 129; Blow, "Memoir;" Mariah Calloway, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 142 ("ate from the family's table"). One planter gave his slaves their gifts in the family kitchen. (Palmer, "Maryland Homes and Ways," 260). A Jamaican planter reported in the 1820s that "[i]n the evening they a.s.semble in their master's or manager's house, and as a matter of course, take possession of the largest room, bringing with them a fiddle and tambourines" (Barclay, Practical View Practical View, 10).

38. For masters who visited the slave quarters, see Northup, For masters who visited the slave quarters, see Northup, Twelve Years a Slave Twelve Years a Slave, 215: "White people in great numbers a.s.semble [there] to witness the gastronomical enjoyments." Another ex-slave later recalled that "[w]hile they danced and sang the master and his family sat and looked on" (quoted in Killion and Waller, Slavery Times Slavery Times, 116). For an extreme version of masters joining in their slaves' festivities, see Helen Tunnicliff Catterall, Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (2 vols., Washington, D.C., 192637), vol. 2 (1929), 140141. A misleading summary of this fascinating case can be found in Guion Griffis Johnson, (2 vols., Washington, D.C., 192637), vol. 2 (1929), 140141. A misleading summary of this fascinating case can be found in Guion Griffis Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937): Johnson misinterprets the story as a matter of the owner's merely inviting the slaves home to perform for the "amus.e.m.e.nt" of his own family. See below, note 42. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937): Johnson misinterprets the story as a matter of the owner's merely inviting the slaves home to perform for the "amus.e.m.e.nt" of his own family. See below, note 42.

39. Cameron, "Christmas on an Old Plantation," 58. Cameron, "Christmas on an Old Plantation," 58.

40. Thorpe, "Christmas;" Stampp, Thorpe, "Christmas;" Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169. Thomas Nelson Page later recalled how his own family decorated the table for their slaves' Christmas dinner with "their own white hands"! Thomas Nelson Page, Social Life in Old Virginia Before the War Social Life in Old Virginia Before the War (New York, 1897), 102. (New York, 1897), 102.

41. Stampp, Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169 ("happy as Lords;" quoted from John Houston Bills ms. diary, Dec. 30, 1843); Barclay, Practical View Practical View, 10 ("all authority"); Foby, "Management of Servants," in Southern Cultivator 11 Southern Cultivator 11 (Aug. 1853), 226228 ("difficult to say who is master": quoted in Breeden, (Aug. 1853), 226228 ("difficult to say who is master": quoted in Breeden, Advice Among Masters Advice Among Masters, 309; partially quoted in Genovese, 579). See also James Benson Sellers, Slavery in Alabama Slavery in Alabama (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1950), 124. (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1950), 124.

42. John N. Evans to John W. Burrus, Jan. 1, 1836; quoted in Genovese, John N. Evans to John W. Burrus, Jan. 1, 1836; quoted in Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll Roll, Jordan, Roll, 579580. See also the following slave owner's diary entry from December 25, 1852: "I have endeavored ... to make my Negroes joyous and happy, and am glad to see them enjoying themselves with such a contented hearty good will" (quoted in Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 169). One North Carolina planter was brought to court in 1847 for allowing members of his own family (including his young daughters) to dance with the slaves he had invited into the Big House on Christmas night. The judge in the case acquitted this man of the charges, and in his decision wrote of the defendant's behavior that "there was nothing contrary to morals or law in all that ... unless it be that one feel aggrieved, that these poor people should for a short s.p.a.ce be happy at finding the authority of the master give place to his benignity.... It is very possible, that the children of the family might in Christmas times, without the least impropriety, countenance the festivities of the old servants of the family by witnessing, and even mingling in them." North Carolina v. Boyce North Carolina v. Boyce, in Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, II, 140141. See above, note 38.

43. Quoted in Johnson, Quoted in Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552553, from ms. in N.C. Legislative Papers, June 18, 1824. For an account of the murder case that lay behind this statement, see Elizabeth A. Fenn, "'A Perfect Equality Seemed to Reign': Slave Society and Jonkonnu," North Carolina Historical Review North Carolina Historical Review, 65 (Apr. 1988), 127153. Compare Judge Ruffin's decision in the Boyce case: "It would really be a source of regret, if, contrary to common custom, it were denied to slaves, in the intervals between their toils, to indulge in mirthful pastimes, or if it were unlawful for the master to permit them among his slaves, or to admit to the social enjoyment the slaves of others, by their consent.... We may let them make the most of their idle hours, and may well make allowances for the noisy outpourings of glad hearts, which providence bestows as a blessing on corporeal vigor united to a vacant mind...." (Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, II, 139141; several pa.s.sages from this quotation are taken from the version that appears in Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 555.) 44. Fithian Journals Fithian Journals, 5253.

45. Thorpe, "Cotton," 460461. Thorpe, "Cotton," 460461.

46. Julia Peterkin, in Charlmae Rollins, ed., Julia Peterkin, in Charlmae Rollins, ed., Christmas Gif; an anthology of Christmas poems, songs, and stories, written by and about Negroes Christmas Gif; an anthology of Christmas poems, songs, and stories, written by and about Negroes (Chicago: Follett, [1963]), 33; Smedes, (Chicago: Follett, [1963]), 33; Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 162; see also Blow, Memoir; Cooke, "Christmas Time in Old Virginia," 458; Folsom, "Christmas at Brockton Plantation," 486 (this involved whites only); Joel Chandler Harris, "Something about 'Sandy Claus,'" in his On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War (New York, 1892), 116; Johnson, (New York, 1892), 116; Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552.

47. James Bolton, in Killion and Waller, James Bolton, in Killion and Waller, Slavery Time Slavery Time, 25; see also Blow, Memoir.

48. Harris, "Something About 'Sandy Claus,'" 116; Rollins, Harris, "Something About 'Sandy Claus,'" 116; Rollins, Christmas Gif'! Christmas Gif'!, 35 (Hurston story). In some places this "game" lasted into the twentieth century. See Harnett T. Kane, ibid., 16. Zora Neale Hurston told a story of a black man who hid behind a stump one Christmas and took G.o.d Almighty by surprise with the cry "Christmas gift!" (ibid., 35). There is even a reference to this ritual in William Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury The Sound and the Fury. As young Quentin Compson leaves Harvard College in despair and arrives by train in Mississippi on December 25, the first thing that happens to him when he steps off the train-it is what makes him realize he has arrived "home"-is that he is approached by a Negro beggar who accosts him with the words "Christmas gift."

49. Page, Page, Social Life Social Life, 96; Baird, Edmonds Edmonds, 910 (1857 entry), 177 (1863 entry). See also William Gilmore Simms, The Golden Christmas: A Chronicle of St. Johns, Berkeley The Golden Christmas: A Chronicle of St. Johns, Berkeley (Charleston, S.C., 1852), 143145. (Charleston, S.C., 1852), 143145.

50. Edmonds married only in 1870, at the age of 30. One young Virginia married woman claimed the perquisites of both roles: "We [she and her husband] have invitation to a dinner on Wednesday ..., and I am invited among the young people to an evening party on Friday-so you perceive I have [both] married Edmonds married only in 1870, at the age of 30. One young Virginia married woman claimed the perquisites of both roles: "We [she and her husband] have invitation to a dinner on Wednesday ..., and I am invited among the young people to an evening party on Friday-so you perceive I have [both] married and and single privileges" (Tyler ms., Swem Library, College of William and Mary). single privileges" (Tyler ms., Swem Library, College of William and Mary).

51. Smedes, Smedes, Southern Planter Southern Planter, 162.

52. Stampp, Stampp, Peculiar Inst.i.tution Peculiar Inst.i.tution, 366 ("best rigging": quoted from John W. Brown diary, Dec. 25, 1853); Cameron, "Christmas on an Old Plantation."

53. Thorpe, "Cotton," 460 ("drop their plantation names"); Mary A. Livermore, Thorpe, "Cotton," 460 ("drop their plantation names"); Mary A. Livermore, The Story of My Life The Story of My Life (Hartford, 1897), 210 ("almost a burlesque"). (Hartford, 1897), 210 ("almost a burlesque").

54. Thorpe, "Cotton," 460.

55. Henry, "Yankee Schoolmistress," 129130 Bayard Hall reported that slaves mimicked the idiosyncrasies of the whites' dialogue and mannerisms (Hall, Henry, "Yankee Schoolmistress," 129130 Bayard Hall reported that slaves mimicked the idiosyncrasies of the whites' dialogue and mannerisms (Hall, Frank Freeman Frank Freeman, 109110).

56. Quoted Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Quoted Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 145.

57. Liberator Liberator 8 (May 26, 1837, 85. The writer acknowledged that "very few of the blacks were at church," and added that "the distant sounds of c.o.o.ner reached even there." 8 (May 26, 1837, 85. The writer acknowledged that "very few of the blacks were at church," and added that "the distant sounds of c.o.o.ner reached even there."

58. Johnson, Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina Ante-Bellum North Carolina, 552553 (quoted from ms. in N.C. Legislative Papers, June 18, 1824). For an account of the incident behind this statement-the killing of a white man by a John Canoer-see Fenn, "A Perfect Equality Seemed to Reign,'" 127153. See also Edward Warren, A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents (Baltimore, 1885), 198203. (Baltimore, 1885), 198203.

59. James Norcom to his daughter Mary Matilda Norcom, Jan. 13, 1838; quoted by Jean f.a.gan Yellin in Jacobs, James Norcom to his daughter Mary Matilda Norcom, Jan. 13, 1838; quoted by Jean f.a.gan Yellin in Jacobs, Incidents, 277 Incidents, 277. See also Edward Warren, A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents A Doctor's Experiences in Three Continents (Baltimore, 1885), 198203. (Baltimore, 1885), 198203.

60. Jacobs, Jacobs, Incidents Incidents, 180.

61. Ibid., 179180. Ibid., 179180.

62. Dougald MacMillan, "John Kuners," Dougald MacMillan, "John Kuners," Journal of American Folklore Journal of American Folklore 39 (1926), 5357. This verse is quoted by Lawrence Levine, who writes that it was sung by the John Canoe band to "those whites who did not respond to their offerings with generosity." Levine, 39 (1926), 5357. This verse is quoted by Lawrence Levine, who writes that it was sung by the John Canoe band to "those whites who did not respond to their offerings with generosity." Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 13. I have found one other (rather inoffensive) fragment of a begging song, recalled years later by a white woman who was raised in the area: "C'ris'mas comes but once er yeah, / An' ev'y po niggiah arter have 'e sha'" (Folsom, "Christmas at Brockton Plantation," 485). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 13. I have found one other (rather inoffensive) fragment of a begging song, recalled years later by a white woman who was raised in the area: "C'ris'mas comes but once er yeah, / An' ev'y po niggiah arter have 'e sha'" (Folsom, "Christmas at Brockton Plantation," 485).

63. Jean f.a.gan Yellin quotes from a letter from John W. Nunley to Jean f.a.gan Yellin suggesting that John Canoe was "a creolized masquerade tradition that has incorporated African and English traditions of masking.... The penchant for rum and the collecting of money by the maskers is also a shared trans-Atlantic tradition" (Jacobs, Jean f.a.gan Yellin quotes from a letter from John W. Nunley to Jean f.a.gan Yellin suggesting that John Canoe was "a creolized masquerade tradition that has incorporated African and English traditions of masking.... The penchant for rum and the collecting of money by the maskers is also a shared trans-Atlantic tradition" (Jacobs, Incidents Incidents, 278279n). Frederick G. Ca.s.sidy claims that the ceremony comes from the "Gold Coast," though it was widely observed in the New World: Frederick G. Ca.s.sidy, "'Hipsaw' and 'John Canoe,'"American Speech 41 (1966), 4551. On "John Canoe" in North Carolina, see Fenn, "A Perfect Equality';" Richard Walser, "His Worshipful John Kuner," 41 (1966), 4551. On "John Canoe" in North Carolina, see Fenn, "A Perfect Equality';" Richard Walser, "His Worshipful John Kuner," North Carolina Folklore North Carolina Folklore 19 (1971), 160172; and Nancy Ping, "Black Musical Activities in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina," 19 (1971), 160172; and Nancy Ping, "Black Musical Activities in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina," The Black Perspective in Music The Black Perspective in Music 8 (1980), 139160. As far as the ridiculing song, Dena Epstein notes that "the parallel with African songs of derision is evident" (Epstein, 8 (1980), 139160. As far as the ridiculing song, Dena Epstein notes that "the parallel with African songs of derision is evident" (Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals Sinful Tunes and Spirituals [Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977], 131). The song quoted by Lawrence Levine is taken from Dougald MacMillan, "John Kuners," [Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977], 131). The song quoted by Lawrence Levine is taken from Dougald MacMillan, "John Kuners," Journal of American Folklore Journal of American Folklore 39 (1926), 5357. See also Levine, 39 (1926), 5357. See also Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness) Black Culture and Black Consciousness), 12. Ira de A. Reid, "The John Canoe Festival: A New World Africanism," Phylon Phylon 3 (1942), 349370, argues for the English origin of the ritual. Martha Warren Beckwith, 3 (1942), 349370, argues for the English origin of the ritual. Martha Warren Beckwith, Black Roadways: A Study of Jamaican Folk Life Black Roadways: A Study of Jamaican Folk Life (Chapel Hill, 1929), gives evidence from the 1920s that Shakespearean plays were being used by the John Canoers. (See also the same author's (Chapel Hill, 1929), gives evidence from the 1920s that Shakespearean plays were being used by the John Canoers. (See also the same author's Christmas Mummings in Jamaica Christmas Mummings in Jamaica (Pubs. of the Folklore Foundation: Va.s.sar College, 1923). (Pubs. of the Folklore Foundation: Va.s.sar College, 1923).

64. Epstein, Epstein, Sinful Tunes Sinful Tunes, 131.

65. For an instance, see Catterall, For an instance, see Catterall, Cases Concerning Slavery Cases Concerning Slavery, vol. 2, 536: Tennessee cases: "Bowling v. Statton and Swann, ... "Bowling v. Statton and Swann, ... December 1847. '[A]ction ... for the loss of a negro man ... hired ... and never returned.'" December 1847. '[A]ction ... for the loss of a negro man ... hired ... and never returned.'"

66. Dan T. Carter, "The Anatomy of Fear: The Christmas Day Insurrection Scare of 1865," in Dan T. Carter, "The Anatomy of Fear: The Christmas Day Insurrection Scare of 1865," in Journal of Southern History Journal of Southern History 42 (1976), 345364; "nearly one-third the rumors" is on p. 358. Joel Williamson also notes that in South Carolina "[t]he Fourth of July ... and Christmas or New Year's Day had marked a large number of insurrections or planned insurrections." Joel Williamson, 42 (1976), 345364; "nearly one-third the rumors" is on p. 358. Joel Williamson also notes that in South Carolina "[t]he Fourth of July ... and Christmas or New Year's Day had marked a large number of insurrections or planned insurrections." Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 18611877 After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 18611877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 250. For a report of an 1835 slave revolt in Louisiana that was planned for Christmas, see Joe Gray Taylor, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 250. For a report of an 1835 slave revolt in Louisiana that was planned for Christmas, see Joe Gray Taylor, Negro Slavery in Louisiana Negro Slavery in Louisiana (New York, 1963), 218220. The South Carolina report is from Frederick Law Olmstead, A (New York, 1963), 218220. The South Carolina report is from Frederick Law Olmstead, A Journey Through the Back Country Journey Through the Back Country (London, 1860), 203; quoted in Joseph Cephas Carroll, (London, 1860), 203; quoted in Joseph Cephas Carroll, Slave Insurrections in the United States, 18001865 Slave Insurrections in the United States, 18001865 (Boston, 1938), 176. For the 1856 reports, see Herbert Aptheker, (Boston, 1938), 176. For the 1856 reports, see Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 347350. On December 24, 1856, one Virginia slave was discovered carrying a letter concerning an imminent "meeting" that would lead to "freedom;" the letter claimed that soon "the country is ours certain" (quoted ibid., 350). Some revolts were timed for July 4, the other major slave holiday, and one that was also charged with a powerful symbolism of liberation. Nat Turner, for example, originally intended his 1831 rebellion to begin on July 4. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 347350. On December 24, 1856, one Virginia slave was discovered carrying a letter concerning an imminent "meeting" that would lead to "freedom;" the letter claimed that soon "the country is ours certain" (quoted ibid., 350). Some revolts were timed for July 4, the other major slave holiday, and one that was also charged with a powerful symbolism of liberation. Nat Turner, for example, originally intended his 1831 rebellion to begin on July 4.

67. See William McFeely, See William McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Eric Foner, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Eric Foner, Reconstruction America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 Reconstruction America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); Carter, "Anatomy of Fear;" William C. Harris, (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); Carter, "Anatomy of Fear;" William C. Harris, Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 8889; Claude F. Oubre, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 8889; Claude F. Oubre, Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), esp. pp. 189. The Civil War origins of a potential land-reform policy are discussed in LaWanda c.o.x, "The Promise of Land for the Freedmen," (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), esp. pp. 189. The Civil War origins of a potential land-reform policy are discussed in LaWanda c.o.x, "The Promise of Land for the Freedmen," Mississippi Valley Historical Review Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45 (1958), 413440. 45 (1958), 413440.

68. Henry Watson to his daughter Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, ms. in Frost Library, Amherst College. This letter was brought to my attention by Wesley Borucki. Watson added that "The [black] women say that they never mean to do any more outdoor work, that Henry Watson to his daughter Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, ms. in Frost Library, Amherst College. This letter was brought to my attention by Wesley Borucki. Watson added that "The [black] women say that they never mean to do any more outdoor work, that white men white men support support their their wives and they mean that wives and they mean that their their husbands shall support husbands shall support them." them." Such hopes to abandon "outdoor work" suggest intriguingly that these freedwomen harbored bourgeois aspirations-i.e., to work in the home and be supported by their husbands. Such hopes to abandon "outdoor work" suggest intriguingly that these freedwomen harbored bourgeois aspirations-i.e., to work in the home and be supported by their husbands.

69. Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," a.s.sociates the "Christmas Riots of 1865" with the long history of rowdy behavior on this holiday but does not go on to a.s.sociate the holiday with gestures of paternalist largesse on the part of whites. Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," a.s.sociates the "Christmas Riots of 1865" with the long history of rowdy behavior on this holiday but does not go on to a.s.sociate the holiday with gestures of paternalist largesse on the part of whites.

70. Texas State Gazette Texas State Gazette [Austin], quoted in [Austin], quoted in The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 21, 1865 ("waiting for the jubilee"-the writer had traveled through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana); [New Orleans], Nov. 21, 1865 ("waiting for the jubilee"-the writer had traveled through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana); Daily Picayune Daily Picayune, Dec. 27, 1865 ("their old masters").

71. Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865. "As for work," one South Carolina planter told a visiting reporter, "[T]he freedmen were doing absolutely nothing. He had overheard one of his girls saying that she hadn't seen any freedom yet, she had to work just as hard as ever. And that was the feeling of a great many of them. Then, as he had said, they were waiting for January, and nothing could be done with them till they became convinced that they must work for wages" Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865. "As for work," one South Carolina planter told a visiting reporter, "[T]he freedmen were doing absolutely nothing. He had overheard one of his girls saying that she hadn't seen any freedom yet, she had to work just as hard as ever. And that was the feeling of a great many of them. Then, as he had said, they were waiting for January, and nothing could be done with them till they became convinced that they must work for wages" (The Nation (The Nation I [1865], 651). I [1865], 651).

72. For example, the provisional governor of South Carolina, James Lawrence Orr, wrote: "[During] Christmas week, which has always been a holiday for the negroes they will congregate in large numbers in the villages and towns where they will get liquor and while under its influence I fear that collisions will occur between them and the whites. When once commenced no one can tell where the conflict will end" (Orr to Gen. Daniel Sickles, Dec. 13, 1865; quoted in Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 358n). For example, the provisional governor of South Carolina, James Lawrence Orr, wrote: "[During] Christmas week, which has always been a holiday for the negroes they will congregate in large numbers in the villages and towns where they will get liquor and while under its influence I fear that collisions will occur between them and the whites. When once commenced no one can tell where the conflict will end" (Orr to Gen. Daniel Sickles, Dec. 13, 1865; quoted in Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 358n).

73. Atlanta Daily Intelligencer Atlanta Daily Intelligencer, Dec. 21, 1865; quoted in Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 358); The Nation The Nation I (1865), 651. I (1865), 651.

74. Shreveport Gazette Shreveport Gazette, reprinted in Cincinnati Daily Enquirer Cincinnati Daily Enquirer, Nov. 23, 1865 ("growing more insolent"); ibid., Nov. 24, 1865. For other reports, see the following (all 1865); ibid., Nov. 28 (Louisiana, Texas); ibid., Nov. 30 (Georgia); ibid., Dec. 23 (Texas, citing San Antonio Gazette); San Antonio Gazette); ibid., Dec. 23 (Virginia); ibid., Dec. 23 (Virginia); National Intelligencer National Intelligencer [Washington], Nov. 29 (Mississippi); [Washington], Nov. 29 (Mississippi); Washington Evening Star Washington Evening Star, Dec. 26 (Mississippi, citing the Vicksburg Journal); Cincinnati Enquirer Vicksburg Journal); Cincinnati Enquirer, Nov. 28 (Texas).

75. New Orleans New Orleans True Delta True Delta, Dec. 15, 1865, reprinted in National Intelligencer National Intelligencer [Washington, D.C.], Dec. 30, 1865. [Washington, D.C.], Dec. 30, 1865.

76. The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 14, 1865. [New Orleans], Nov. 14, 1865.

77. General Howard's address to the freedmen was printed in the New Orleans General Howard's address to the freedmen was printed in the New Orleans Times Times, Dec. 10, 1865, and quoted in Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 360. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather Yankee Stepfather, 105, quotes "a la mode Santa Claus." Colonel Strong's speech was quoted in The Daily Picayune The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865. (Colonel Strong was General Howard's inspector general; he had been sent to Texas by Howard himself.) Not all agents of the Freedmen's Bureau were willing to do this dirty work. At least one, Thomas Conway of the New Orleans office, continued into the fall to advise freedmen that they could apply for free land through the end of December (McFeely, [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865. (Colonel Strong was General Howard's inspector general; he had been sent to Texas by Howard himself.) Not all agents of the Freedmen's Bureau were willing to do this dirty work. At least one, Thomas Conway of the New Orleans office, continued into the fall to advise freedmen that they could apply for free land through the end of December (McFeely, Yankee Stepfather Yankee Stepfather, 179; Oubre, Forty Acres Forty Acres, 34). And another, General Edgar Gregory-formerly a radical abolitionist-was reported to have given a somewhat incendiary speech to Texas freedmen, telling them that they were ent.i.tled to free land and urging them not to sign unfavorable labor contracts (The Daily Picayune (The Daily Picayune [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865). It was agents such as these that the Southern press regarded as the "bad white men" who were corrupting the black population. For the official mission of the Freedmen's Bureau, see Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 360. [New Orleans], Nov. 28, 1865). It was agents such as these that the Southern press regarded as the "bad white men" who were corrupting the black population. For the official mission of the Freedmen's Bureau, see Carter, "Anatomy of Fear," 360.

78. Columbus [Miss.] Sentinel Columbus [Miss.] Sentinel, reprinted in New Orleans Daily Picayune Daily Picayune, Nov. 28, 1865. See also ms. letter of Henry Watson to Julia Watson, Dec. 16, 1865, Amherst College Archives.