The Battle For Christmas Part 10

18. Follen to Harriet Martineau, Nov. 30, 1835, Follen to Harriet Martineau, Nov. 30, 1835, Works Works, vol. 1, 381383 ("if the world separate itself"); Follen to Martineau, undated (but late December), ibid., 385 ("our Holy Triple Alliance").

19. Martineau's publisher, Saunders and Otley, could hardly have been willing to print a book that was so personally revealing-and so politically controversial (for the terms of her book contract, see Webb, Martineau's publisher, Saunders and Otley, could hardly have been willing to print a book that was so personally revealing-and so politically controversial (for the terms of her book contract, see Webb, Martineau Martineau, 156). Whenever she wrote about Charles Follens role in the abolitionist movement (as she did in reporting his stoical performance before the Ma.s.sachusetts legislative committee in early 1836, an event she witnessed), Martineau kept her own relationship with him completely out of her account. Conversely, whenever she wrote of that personal relationship (as she did in recounting the western trip she took with the Follens in the late spring of 1836, or-to return to the subject of this this book-the evening of the famous Christmas tree), she disguised Follen's ident.i.ty by referring to him simply as "Dr. F.," an apolitical figure who, in this guise, invariably played a secondary role to his young son, "my little friend Charley." The use of "little Charley" was an effective literary device. The boy also served as a rhetorical subst.i.tute for his father, and made it possible for Martineau to convey in utterly nonpolitical ways her close relationship with Charles Follen (who appeared in the wholly domestic role of Charley's father). book-the evening of the famous Christmas tree), she disguised Follen's ident.i.ty by referring to him simply as "Dr. F.," an apolitical figure who, in this guise, invariably played a secondary role to his young son, "my little friend Charley." The use of "little Charley" was an effective literary device. The boy also served as a rhetorical subst.i.tute for his father, and made it possible for Martineau to convey in utterly nonpolitical ways her close relationship with Charles Follen (who appeared in the wholly domestic role of Charley's father).

20. Richard H. Brodhead, Richard H. Brodhead, Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 1347. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 1347.

21. Lawrence J. Friedman, Lawrence J. Friedman, Gregarious Saints: Self and Community in American Abolitionism, 18301870 Gregarious Saints: Self and Community in American Abolitionism, 18301870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), actually uses as an epigraph the Follen letter I have quoted above. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), actually uses as an epigraph the Follen letter I have quoted above.

22. Liberator Liberator, Dec. 21, 1833 (juvenile choir concert); William Lloyd Garrison to his mother, Dec. 24, 1836, in Walter M. Merril and Louis Ruchames, eds., The Letters of The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison William Lloyd Garrison (6 vols., Cambridge: Harvard, 197181), II, 194 ("young fanatic"). The annual Antislavery Fairs can be followed over the years in the (6 vols., Cambridge: Harvard, 197181), II, 194 ("young fanatic"). The annual Antislavery Fairs can be followed over the years in the Liberator Liberator. For an African-American partic.i.p.ant in many of these fairs, see Ray Allen Billington, ed., The Journal of Charlotte Forten, A Free Negro in the Slavery Era The Journal of Charlotte Forten, A Free Negro in the Slavery Era (New York: Norton, 1981), 66, 78, 87, 133, 125126. See also Debra Gold Hansen, (New York: Norton, 1981), 66, 78, 87, 133, 125126. See also Debra Gold Hansen, Strained Sisterhood: Gender and Cla.s.s in the Boston Anti-Slavery Society Strained Sisterhood: Gender and Cla.s.s in the Boston Anti-Slavery Society (Amherst: University of Ma.s.sachusetts, 1993), 123139; and Deborah van Broekhoven, "Spheres and Webs: The Organization of Antislavery Fairs, 18351860," paper delivered to the American Historical a.s.sociation, December, 1988. (Amherst: University of Ma.s.sachusetts, 1993), 123139; and Deborah van Broekhoven, "Spheres and Webs: The Organization of Antislavery Fairs, 18351860," paper delivered to the American Historical a.s.sociation, December, 1988.

23. Liberator Liberator, Dec. 20, 1834.

24. Catharine M. Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," in Catharine M. Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," in The Token and Atlantic Souvenir: A Christmas and New Year's Present The Token and Atlantic Souvenir: A Christmas and New Year's Present (ed. S. G. Goodrich; Boston, 1836 [c. 1835]), 1131 (quotation from 1415). (ed. S. G. Goodrich; Boston, 1836 [c. 1835]), 1131 (quotation from 1415).

25. Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to William Ellery, Jan. 13, 1834 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.1). On January 1, 1829, bad weather kept the number of visitors down to about thirty. But next year the weather was "absolutely perfect," and from noon until 4 p.m. she received "a constant succession of guests." Poor health prevented Mrs. Sedgwick from receiving visitors the next two years, but in 1834 she was back in form. Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to William Ellery, Jan. 13, 1834 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.1). On January 1, 1829, bad weather kept the number of visitors down to about thirty. But next year the weather was "absolutely perfect," and from noon until 4 p.m. she received "a constant succession of guests." Poor health prevented Mrs. Sedgwick from receiving visitors the next two years, but in 1834 she was back in form.

26. Catharine Sedgwick to Kate Sedgwick, Dec. 29, 1834[-Jan. 2, 1835] (CMS I, Box 1.17). Catharine Sedgwick to Kate Sedgwick, Dec. 29, 1834[-Jan. 2, 1835] (CMS I, Box 1.17).

27. Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," 2628. Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," 2628.

28. Ibid., 28. Ibid., 28.

29. Ibid., 1820. The Christmas tree functioned as a literary device that seemed to take the presents hung upon it out of the realm of the commercial marketplace. It is no accident that Sedgwick described those presents, hanging on the branches of the tree, as St. Nicholas's "fruit"-as if they were the Ibid., 1820. The Christmas tree functioned as a literary device that seemed to take the presents hung upon it out of the realm of the commercial marketplace. It is no accident that Sedgwick described those presents, hanging on the branches of the tree, as St. Nicholas's "fruit"-as if they were the natural natural growth of the tree itself (ibid., 17). (It was common for writers to describe the hanging presents with that metaphor, and it may have been why presents were often hung from the tree at this time, and not placed under it in the modern fashion.) growth of the tree itself (ibid., 17). (It was common for writers to describe the hanging presents with that metaphor, and it may have been why presents were often hung from the tree at this time, and not placed under it in the modern fashion.) 30. The anticommercial promise of Christmas trees may well have been related to the social position of people like Catharine Sedgwick, who was a member of a prominent gentry family from rural Ma.s.sachusetts, the kind of patrician who easily a.s.sociated the fashionable world of New York with an upstart bourgeoisie. A story like "New Year's Day" was, on the face of it, an attack on the fashionable world written from "above" (Sedgwick makes plain that Lizzy Percival comes from an older and more distinguished family than do any of her visitors). But by a.s.sociating the Christmas tree itself with Lizzy's German maidservant, Sedgwick managed to ally herself imaginatively with the world "below"-a world equally detached from bourgeois American culture. The anticommercial promise of Christmas trees may well have been related to the social position of people like Catharine Sedgwick, who was a member of a prominent gentry family from rural Ma.s.sachusetts, the kind of patrician who easily a.s.sociated the fashionable world of New York with an upstart bourgeoisie. A story like "New Year's Day" was, on the face of it, an attack on the fashionable world written from "above" (Sedgwick makes plain that Lizzy Percival comes from an older and more distinguished family than do any of her visitors). But by a.s.sociating the Christmas tree itself with Lizzy's German maidservant, Sedgwick managed to ally herself imaginatively with the world "below"-a world equally detached from bourgeois American culture.

31. Quoted in Alfred Shoemaker, Quoted in Alfred Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania: A Folk-Cultural Study Christmas in Pennsylvania: A Folk-Cultural Study (Kutztown: Penn. Folklore Society, 1959), 52. In 1824, two years later, a humorous notice in a York (Penn.) newspaper suggests that Christmas trees could still be put to the service of a different Christmas tradition: carnival and courtship. That year a local young men's club (the Society of Bachelors) announced that-in return for receiving a "Cart load of Gin-gercakes" from any "Old Maids" who would pay them a visit on "second Christmas eve"-they would set up a " (Kutztown: Penn. Folklore Society, 1959), 52. In 1824, two years later, a humorous notice in a York (Penn.) newspaper suggests that Christmas trees could still be put to the service of a different Christmas tradition: carnival and courtship. That year a local young men's club (the Society of Bachelors) announced that-in return for receiving a "Cart load of Gin-gercakes" from any "Old Maids" who would pay them a visit on "second Christmas eve"-they would set up a "Krischtkintle Baum." ("It's decorations shall be superb, superfine, superfrostical, schnockagastical, double refined, mill' twill'd made of Dog's Wool, Swingling Tow, and Posnum [sic] fur; which cannot fail to gratify taste"-ibid., p. 52.) The rhetoric here suggests that the occasion was to be a young people's carnival. As for the picture (see page 196) by John Lewis Krimmel (17761821): Milo M. Naeve, John ("It's decorations shall be superb, superfine, superfrostical, schnockagastical, double refined, mill' twill'd made of Dog's Wool, Swingling Tow, and Posnum [sic] fur; which cannot fail to gratify taste"-ibid., p. 52.) The rhetoric here suggests that the occasion was to be a young people's carnival. As for the picture (see page 196) by John Lewis Krimmel (17761821): Milo M. Naeve, John Lewis Krimmel: An Artist in Federal America Lewis Krimmel: An Artist in Federal America (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1987), dates this picture to 181920; while Anneliese Harding, (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1987), dates this picture to 181920; while Anneliese Harding, John Lewis Krimmel: Genre Artist of the Early Republic John Lewis Krimmel: Genre Artist of the Early Republic (Winterthur, Del.: Winterthur Publications, 1994), 45, gives the date as 181213. (Winterthur, Del.: Winterthur Publications, 1994), 45, gives the date as 181213.

32. Memoirs of Baroness Oberkirch, quoted in Alexander Tille, "German Christmas and the Christmas-Tree," in Memoirs of Baroness Oberkirch, quoted in Alexander Tille, "German Christmas and the Christmas-Tree," in Folk-Lore: A Quarterly Review of Myth, Tradition, Inst.i.tution, and Custom Folk-Lore: A Quarterly Review of Myth, Tradition, Inst.i.tution, and Custom (London), III (1892), 166182. This and the following paragraphs are based on the above article, along with the following: Kurt Mantel, (London), III (1892), 166182. This and the following paragraphs are based on the above article, along with the following: Kurt Mantel, Geschichte des Weinachtsbaumes Geschichte des Weinachtsbaumes (Hanover: M. u. H. Schaper, 1975), 532 and pa.s.sim; Alexander Tille, (Hanover: M. u. H. Schaper, 1975), 532 and pa.s.sim; Alexander Tille, Die Geschichte der Deutschen Weinacht Die Geschichte der Deutschen Weinacht (Leipzig, 1893), 256278; Alexander Tille, (Leipzig, 1893), 256278; Alexander Tille, Yule and Christmas: Their Place in the German Year Yule and Christmas: Their Place in the German Year (London, 1899), 103106, 170176, 214218; and Ingeborg Weber-Kellerman, (London, 1899), 103106, 170176, 214218; and Ingeborg Weber-Kellerman, Das Weinachtfest: Eine Kultur-und Sozialgeschichte der Weinachtszeit Das Weinachtfest: Eine Kultur-und Sozialgeschichte der Weinachtszeit (Lucerne and Frankfort: Christmas. J. Bucher, 1978), 104131. See also Phillip V. Snyder, (Lucerne and Frankfort: Christmas. J. Bucher, 1978), 104131. See also Phillip V. Snyder, The Christmas Tree Book The Christmas Tree Book (New York, 1976), 14.1 have used these sources to arrive at the above interpretation, but the interpretation itself is my own. (New York, 1976), 14.1 have used these sources to arrive at the above interpretation, but the interpretation itself is my own.

33. George Bancroft to his parents, Aaron and Lucretia Bancroft, Dec. 30, 1820, in Bancroft Papers, American Antiquarian Society. George Bancroft to his parents, Aaron and Lucretia Bancroft, Dec. 30, 1820, in Bancroft Papers, American Antiquarian Society.

34. "Christmas Eve; or, The Conversion. From the German," "Christmas Eve; or, The Conversion. From the German," Atheneum Atheneum, VII (May-June, 1820). This story had appeared earlier that year in a French magazine, La Belle a.s.semblee La Belle a.s.semblee (Jan. 1820). For a much later story (which placed the origin of the Christmas tree even earlier), see Henry Van d.y.k.e, (Jan. 1820). For a much later story (which placed the origin of the Christmas tree even earlier), see Henry Van d.y.k.e, The First Christmas Tree The First Christmas Tree (New York, 1897, ill.u.s.trated by Howard Pyle), set in the German forests in (New York, 1897, ill.u.s.trated by Howard Pyle), set in the German forests in A.D. A.D. 722. 722.

35. For Coleridge's gentry a.s.sociations in Ratzeburg, see Oswald Doughty, For Coleridge's gentry a.s.sociations in Ratzeburg, see Oswald Doughty, Perturbed Spirit: The Life and Personality of Samuel Taylor Coleridge Perturbed Spirit: The Life and Personality of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (East Brunswick, N.J., 1981), 150152. Coleridge himself, in a 1798 letter, referred to his society as "Gentry and n.o.bility." His description of the house in which he observed the Christmas tree refers to two parlors. (Coleridge was rather offended by the s.e.xual looseness he witnessed in Ratzeburg.) (East Brunswick, N.J., 1981), 150152. Coleridge himself, in a 1798 letter, referred to his society as "Gentry and n.o.bility." His description of the house in which he observed the Christmas tree refers to two parlors. (Coleridge was rather offended by the s.e.xual looseness he witnessed in Ratzeburg.) 36. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Christmas Within Doors, in the North of Germany," Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Christmas Within Doors, in the North of Germany," The Friend The Friend (Burlington, Vt., 1831), 321322. (Burlington, Vt., 1831), 321322.

37. Ibid., 322. This scene took place "in the great parlour" of his host's house. The ritual contained some of the old elements of Christmas as judgment day: Just before the presents are actually distributed, "the mother says privately to each of her daughters, and the father to his sons, that which he has observed most praise-worthy and that which was most faulty in their conduct." It is interesting that the parents tell the children their faults "privately;" this has the ring of a new practice (like the Christmas tree itself). Ibid., 322. This scene took place "in the great parlour" of his host's house. The ritual contained some of the old elements of Christmas as judgment day: Just before the presents are actually distributed, "the mother says privately to each of her daughters, and the father to his sons, that which he has observed most praise-worthy and that which was most faulty in their conduct." It is interesting that the parents tell the children their faults "privately;" this has the ring of a new practice (like the Christmas tree itself).

38. Catharine Sedgwick diary, Jan. 19, 1836, in CMS I, Box 11. The Burlington edition of Catharine Sedgwick diary, Jan. 19, 1836, in CMS I, Box 11. The Burlington edition of The Friend The Friend was reprinted in 1831. was reprinted in 1831.

39. Christian Register Christian Register, III (Apr. 24, 1824), 152. I suspect that I have not completely tracked down the printing history of Coleridge's little report, or the history of the way it reappeared in American sources, sometimes without attribution.

40. Lydia M. Child, Lydia M. Child, The Little Girl's Own Book The Little Girl's Own Book (Boston, 1831), 286287. (The t.i.tle was registered for copyright on December 25, 1830, and the preface wished the children who read it "a merry Christmas and a happy New-Year" (ibid., iv). The book was reprinted several times, into the 1850s. (Boston, 1831), 286287. (The t.i.tle was registered for copyright on December 25, 1830, and the preface wished the children who read it "a merry Christmas and a happy New-Year" (ibid., iv). The book was reprinted several times, into the 1850s.

41. J. K. Smith, J. K. Smith, Juvenile Lessons; or, The Child's First Reading Book Juvenile Lessons; or, The Child's First Reading Book (Keene, N.H., 1832), 7071. (This last statement of this lesson reveals that Coleridge himself, and not Lydia Maria Child, was almost surely the source.) Circ.u.mstantial evidence suggests that J. K. Smith, too, was a progressive Unitarian. Smith's book went through three editions, all published in Keene, between 1832 and 1842. (Keene, N.H., 1832), 7071. (This last statement of this lesson reveals that Coleridge himself, and not Lydia Maria Child, was almost surely the source.) Circ.u.mstantial evidence suggests that J. K. Smith, too, was a progressive Unitarian. Smith's book went through three editions, all published in Keene, between 1832 and 1842.

42. Youth's Companion Youth's Companion, XIV (Dec. 25, 1840), 129. This magazine was edited by Nathaniel Willis, the father of two writers who were very popular in their day, N. P. Willis and f.a.n.n.y Fern. The children in this "story" go on to propose (again following Coleridge's report) that on Christmas Day their parents give them notes "'telling them what faults they have overcome during the year, and what they have still left to overcome.'" ("'I should like that,'" one of the children says.) 43. Philip J. Greven, Philip J. Greven, The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Child-rearing, Religious Experience, and the Self in Early America The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Child-rearing, Religious Experience, and the Self in Early America (New York: Knopf, 1977), 206 Greven adds that such parents (whom he calls "moderates," as distinct from "evangelicals") "were preoccupied with self-established and self-maintained boundaries over their pa.s.sions and appet.i.tes" (p. 206). Theodore Parker, "Phases of Domestic Life," quoted ibid., 168. For an overview of att.i.tudes toward child rearing in nineteenth-century America, see Bernard Wishy, (New York: Knopf, 1977), 206 Greven adds that such parents (whom he calls "moderates," as distinct from "evangelicals") "were preoccupied with self-established and self-maintained boundaries over their pa.s.sions and appet.i.tes" (p. 206). Theodore Parker, "Phases of Domestic Life," quoted ibid., 168. For an overview of att.i.tudes toward child rearing in nineteenth-century America, see Bernard Wishy, The Child and the Republic: The Dawn of Modern American Child Nurture The Child and the Republic: The Dawn of Modern American Child Nurture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968); and for a splendid and provocative recent a.n.a.lysis of the corporal-punishment debate, see Brodhead, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968); and for a splendid and provocative recent a.n.a.lysis of the corporal-punishment debate, see Brodhead, Cultures of Letters, 1347 Cultures of Letters, 1347. An influential nineteenth-century book on this subject is Horace Bushnell, Views of Christian Nurture Views of Christian Nurture (Hartford, 1847). (Hartford, 1847).

44. Mrs. [Elizabeth] Sedgwick, "The Game at Jackstraws and The Christmas Box," in Mrs. [Elizabeth] Sedgwick, "The Game at Jackstraws and The Christmas Box," in The Pearl; or, Affection's Gift The Pearl; or, Affection's Gift (Philadelphia, 1834), 1752. (Philadelphia, 1834), 1752.

45. Ibid., 31, 36, 46. Ibid., 31, 36, 46.

46. Ibid., 32, 4647. This same number of Ibid., 32, 4647. This same number of The Pearl The Pearl contained a prefatory poem about holiday gifts, signed "A.D.W." and dated from Stockbridge (the author was almost certainly a friend of the Stockbridge Sedgwicks). This poem concludes with two stanzas advertising contained a prefatory poem about holiday gifts, signed "A.D.W." and dated from Stockbridge (the author was almost certainly a friend of the Stockbridge Sedgwicks). This poem concludes with two stanzas advertising The Pearl The Pearl itself: "And here is one,-look, Ellen dear,-/ That I from all would choose; / Its very name't is sweet to hear; / Affection's Gift' who'd lose ["Affection's Gift" was the subt.i.tle of itself: "And here is one,-look, Ellen dear,-/ That I from all would choose; / Its very name't is sweet to hear; / Affection's Gift' who'd lose ["Affection's Gift" was the subt.i.tle of The Pearl]." The Pearl]." "True, true, dear Sarah, I am sure / We need not look for [presents] more, / While here we have, so chaste and pure, / 'The Pearl' for thirty-four" (ibid., 10). "True, true, dear Sarah, I am sure / We need not look for [presents] more, / While here we have, so chaste and pure, / 'The Pearl' for thirty-four" (ibid., 10).

47. Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Robert Sedgwick, Aug. 22, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.12). Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Robert Sedgwick, Aug. 22, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.12).

48. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Nature," in Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Nature," in Nature, Addresses and Lectures (The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson Nature, Addresses and Lectures (The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 12 vols., Boston, 19034), I, 89.

49. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Historic Notes of Life and Letters in New England," ibid., vol. 10, 325. I am indebted to Conrad Wright for this reference. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Historic Notes of Life and Letters in New England," ibid., vol. 10, 325. I am indebted to Conrad Wright for this reference.

50. Quoted in E. Biber, Quoted in E. Biber, Henry Pestalozzi, and His Plan of Education Henry Pestalozzi, and His Plan of Education (London, 1833), 447448. (London, 1833), 447448.

51. "S." [Susan Sedgwick], "'Record of a School: Exemplifying the general principles of spiritual culture," "S." [Susan Sedgwick], "'Record of a School: Exemplifying the general principles of spiritual culture," The Knickerbocker The Knickerbocker, 8 (Feb. 1836), 113130. Mrs. Sedgwick called Alcott an "enthusiast" and an "ultra." Richard Brodhead makes a compelling linkage between radical educational theory and the abolitionists' horror of the use of the lash on slave plantations. See Brodhead, Cultures of Letters Cultures of Letters, 1314, 3542.

52. For this episode, see Folien, For this episode, see Folien, Works Works, 1, 360378 pa.s.sim; and specifically, 362 ("individual talent and taste"), 375 ("legitimate and innocent desires"). Folien maintained, as Elizabeth Palmer Peabody later reported, "that the child should be handled not with reference to his future, but to his present perfection; that the father of the man is the perfect child in child in the balance of childish beauty, and not the child prematurely developed into a man; that education which does the latter both destroys the child and dwarfs the man." This is quoted in Spindler, the balance of childish beauty, and not the child prematurely developed into a man; that education which does the latter both destroys the child and dwarfs the man." This is quoted in Spindler, Charles Folien Charles Folien, 107109 (the quotation is from Elizabeth Palmer Peabody's 1880 volume Reminiscences of W.E. Channing Reminiscences of W.E. Channing, 250257). For further evidence of Follen's adherence Pestalozzian principles: In 1826 he tried to procure some "fables" by Pestalozzi (Works, 1, 161). And in 1828 he attempted to revise William Russel's Pestalozzian "Teacher's Manual," a work evidently still in ma.n.u.script (ibid., 240).

53. Diary entry, Dec. 26, 1827, in Folien, Diary entry, Dec. 26, 1827, in Folien, Works Works, I, 222.

54. Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Ellery Sedgwick, Aug. 4, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.9-this letter is addressed to "My dear precious son"); Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Robert Sedgwick, undated but postmarked Sept. 1, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.12); Robert Sedgwick to Ellery Sedgwick, Jan. 3, 1836 (Sedgwick V, Box 18.1). Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Ellery Sedgwick, Aug. 4, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.9-this letter is addressed to "My dear precious son"); Elizabeth E. Sedgwick to Robert Sedgwick, undated but postmarked Sept. 1, 1835 (Sedgwick V, Box 17.12); Robert Sedgwick to Ellery Sedgwick, Jan. 3, 1836 (Sedgwick V, Box 18.1).

55. E. Biber, E. Biber, Life and Trials of Henry Pestalozzi Life and Trials of Henry Pestalozzi (Philadelphia, 1833), 3843. (The quotation marks appear in the original.) The translator continued: "Christmas-eve is abroad as here [i.e., in England and America], the time when children receive gifts of every kind from their parents, G.o.dfathers, &c.; but instead of 'Christmas boxes,' they are. The preparation of the 'Christmas tree' is a family mystery, and if the child asks from whence all the goodly things come, the answer is, 'The Christchild brought them.'" (Philadelphia, 1833), 3843. (The quotation marks appear in the original.) The translator continued: "Christmas-eve is abroad as here [i.e., in England and America], the time when children receive gifts of every kind from their parents, G.o.dfathers, &c.; but instead of 'Christmas boxes,' they are. The preparation of the 'Christmas tree' is a family mystery, and if the child asks from whence all the goodly things come, the answer is, 'The Christchild brought them.'"

56. Ibid., 43. Ibid., 43.

57. Pestalozzi actually made the same connection. Somewhat like John Pintard (and many others of their generation), Pestalozzi waxed lyrical about the paternalist social relations that had characterized Christmas in the old days-meaning, in Pestalozzis case, the early days of Christianity itself. On Christmas Eve, Pestalozzi wrote, the high and the low together-patrons and clients-gathered in a spirit of harmonious reciprocity. On such occasions, the patrons expressed their spiritual [piety] by offering "earthly gifts" to their clients. "Thus stood the mother among her children, the master among his workmen, the landlord among his tenants. Thus a.s.sembled the congregation before its pastor; thus the rich entered the cottage of the poor ..." (ibid., 38). But that was in the old days. In modern times, Pestalozzi implied, neither side in this exchange, whether workmen and masters, tenants and landlords, even congregations and pastors, had kept their part of the arrangement. But with children, Pestalozzi insisted, the old relations could and did still continue to function in their original harmony, and in the enactment of these relations with the young the intense spirituality of the old days could be re-created. (To an extent, Pestalozzi was simply playing on the symbolism of the Magi bringing gifts to the Christ child, with the a.s.sembled children taking the role of the Christ child. But for Pestalozzi the connection between children and the Christ child was real as well as symbolic-and it was here that his words crossed the line from symbolic social inversion into something much more radical.) Pestalozzi actually made the same connection. Somewhat like John Pintard (and many others of their generation), Pestalozzi waxed lyrical about the paternalist social relations that had characterized Christmas in the old days-meaning, in Pestalozzis case, the early days of Christianity itself. On Christmas Eve, Pestalozzi wrote, the high and the low together-patrons and clients-gathered in a spirit of harmonious reciprocity. On such occasions, the patrons expressed their spiritual [piety] by offering "earthly gifts" to their clients. "Thus stood the mother among her children, the master among his workmen, the landlord among his tenants. Thus a.s.sembled the congregation before its pastor; thus the rich entered the cottage of the poor ..." (ibid., 38). But that was in the old days. In modern times, Pestalozzi implied, neither side in this exchange, whether workmen and masters, tenants and landlords, even congregations and pastors, had kept their part of the arrangement. But with children, Pestalozzi insisted, the old relations could and did still continue to function in their original harmony, and in the enactment of these relations with the young the intense spirituality of the old days could be re-created. (To an extent, Pestalozzi was simply playing on the symbolism of the Magi bringing gifts to the Christ child, with the a.s.sembled children taking the role of the Christ child. But for Pestalozzi the connection between children and the Christ child was real as well as symbolic-and it was here that his words crossed the line from symbolic social inversion into something much more radical.) 58. Ibid., 43. Ibid., 43.

59. Ibid., 39. Ibid., 39.

60. Ibid., 43. Ibid., 43.

61. Mrs. G. "The Christmas Tree," in Mrs. G. "The Christmas Tree," in The Pearl; or, Affection's Gift: A Christmas and New Years Present for 1837 The Pearl; or, Affection's Gift: A Christmas and New Years Present for 1837 (Philadelphia, 1837 [c. 1836]), 179189. (Philadelphia, 1837 [c. 1836]), 179189.

62. Ibid., 179. Ibid., 179.

63. Ibid., 180. Ibid., 180.

64. Ibid., 180, 183. Ibid., 180, 183.

65. Ibid., 183185. Ibid., 183185.

66. This point const.i.tutes further evidence that Christmas trees were used by prosperous families, families who could afford to live in houses that contained enough rooms to do this job-and who were up-to-date enough for these rooms to be "specialized" to the extent that at least one of them was off-limits to the children. This point const.i.tutes further evidence that Christmas trees were used by prosperous families, families who could afford to live in houses that contained enough rooms to do this job-and who were up-to-date enough for these rooms to be "specialized" to the extent that at least one of them was off-limits to the children.

67. Ibid., 180. The same custom is implied in Catharine Sedgwick's 1836 story "New Year's Day." There the children "waked [Lizzy Percival, the heroine] at dawn with ... cries of 'Happy New Year';" and the servants "besieged her door with their earnest taps and their heart-felt good wishes, and each received a gift and a kind word to grace it." (Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," 17.) Ibid., 180. The same custom is implied in Catharine Sedgwick's 1836 story "New Year's Day." There the children "waked [Lizzy Percival, the heroine] at dawn with ... cries of 'Happy New Year';" and the servants "besieged her door with their earnest taps and their heart-felt good wishes, and each received a gift and a kind word to grace it." (Sedgwick, "New Year's Day," 17.) 68. Mrs. G., "The Christmas Tree," ibid., 186. Mrs. G., "The Christmas Tree," ibid., 186.

69. For example: [Christophe von Schmid,] For example: [Christophe von Schmid,] The Christmas Eve: A Tale from the German The Christmas Eve: A Tale from the German (Boston, 1842, etc.; apparently translated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody); Theodore Parker, (Boston, 1842, etc.; apparently translated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody); Theodore Parker, Two Christmas Celebrations Two Christmas Celebrations (Boston, 1859); Lydia Maria Child, "The Christ-Child and the Poor Children," in her (Boston, 1859); Lydia Maria Child, "The Christ-Child and the Poor Children," in her Flowers for Children Flowers for Children (Boston, 1861), 948; L. D. Nicholas, "w.i.l.l.y Ely's Christmas Tree," (Boston, 1861), 948; L. D. Nicholas, "w.i.l.l.y Ely's Christmas Tree," Our Young Folks 2 Our Young Folks 2 (1866), 737740; Louisa May Alcott, "Tilly's Christmas," in (1866), 737740; Louisa May Alcott, "Tilly's Christmas," in her Aunt Jo's Sc.r.a.p-Bag her Aunt Jo's Sc.r.a.p-Bag (Boston, 1872), 122133. (Boston, 1872), 122133.

70. Louisa May Alcott, Louisa May Alcott, Little Women; or, Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy Little Women; or, Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy (Boston, (Boston, 1869) 1869), ch. 3.

71. The best book about Fuller is Charles Capper's a.n.a.lytic biography The best book about Fuller is Charles Capper's a.n.a.lytic biography Margaret Fuller, An American Romantic Life: The Private Years Margaret Fuller, An American Romantic Life: The Private Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), the first of two projected volumes, taking Fuller's career only up to 1841. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), the first of two projected volumes, taking Fuller's career only up to 1841.

72. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 25, 1844. I ascertained the authorship of this essay from Charles Capper. For another "German" legend, printed in an American newspaper in the mid-1830s-complete with suffering child, a vision of the infant Jesus, and a Christmas tree-see "The Forlorn Child's Christmas Eve, a translation from the German of Ruckert," in the Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 24, 1836.

73. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Dec. 28, 1844 1844.

74. Ibid., Jan. 3, 1845. Ibid., Jan. 3, 1845.

Chapter 6.

1. Charles Loring Brace, Charles Loring Brace, Home-Life in Germany Home-Life in Germany (New York, 1853), 225. (New York, 1853), 225.

2. Ibid., Ibid., 122124 122124.

3. Ibid., 221222. Brace was staying at a lodging-house near the Lindenstra.s.se (ibid., Ibid., 221222. Brace was staying at a lodging-house near the Lindenstra.s.se (ibid., 121) 121).

4. A Christmas Carol A Christmas Carol never even shows us the poor, even though the book opens by evoking a general vision of a society riven by vast economic and social divisions. But the book provides hardly a glimpse of poverty, and none at all of discontent. The Ghost of Christmas Past takes us back into the time of Scrooge's childhood, a time portrayed as if it antedates capitalism altogether. The Ghost of Christmas Present takes Scrooge on a tour of England, but the only workers he chooses to show us are miners (a happy family, singing Christmas songs) and, even more briefly, a group of sailors at sea. Real poverty does make one appearance on this tour-but only in the form of a pair of allegorical figures labeled "Want" and "Ignorance." And these figures, who do not move or speak, take the innocent form of a pair of young never even shows us the poor, even though the book opens by evoking a general vision of a society riven by vast economic and social divisions. But the book provides hardly a glimpse of poverty, and none at all of discontent. The Ghost of Christmas Past takes us back into the time of Scrooge's childhood, a time portrayed as if it antedates capitalism altogether. The Ghost of Christmas Present takes Scrooge on a tour of England, but the only workers he chooses to show us are miners (a happy family, singing Christmas songs) and, even more briefly, a group of sailors at sea. Real poverty does make one appearance on this tour-but only in the form of a pair of allegorical figures labeled "Want" and "Ignorance." And these figures, who do not move or speak, take the innocent form of a pair of young children children. In any case, even this brief excursion into the industrial hinterlands of "Christmas Present" is fictionally framed on either side by two lengthy and richly detailed stops at which we witness Christmas dinner with the families of a pair of characters who are already familiar to us: The first is at the house of Scrooge's merry nephew Fred; the second is at the Cratchits'. Because these two scenes are portrayed so vividly, they end up satisfying us emotionally. But both Fred's Christmas dinner and (as we have seen) the Cratchits' are bourgeois events-even though the Cratchits' dinner has all the pathos (without any of the accompanying resentment) of a proletarian meal.

5. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1893. See also ibid., Dec. 25, 1876: 1876: "Should the weather prove fine there seems to be no reason why everybody, including all the possible Bob Cratchits and Tiny Tims in the great Metropolis, should not to-day have the happiest of 'Merry Christmases.' The times are hard, it is said, but the charitable inst.i.tutions are all bountifully supplied with substantial food, and with an abundance of toys and fruit and candy for the children.... In the markets the dealers say that never before were there so many purchases by employers who desired to reward faithful employees, and to make their gifts in the shape of poultry." "Should the weather prove fine there seems to be no reason why everybody, including all the possible Bob Cratchits and Tiny Tims in the great Metropolis, should not to-day have the happiest of 'Merry Christmases.' The times are hard, it is said, but the charitable inst.i.tutions are all bountifully supplied with substantial food, and with an abundance of toys and fruit and candy for the children.... In the markets the dealers say that never before were there so many purchases by employers who desired to reward faithful employees, and to make their gifts in the shape of poultry."

6. Susan Sedgwick to Theodore Sedgwick II, Jan. 2, 1838, in Sedgwick Family Papers II (Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society), Box 8.15. Sedgwick a.s.sured her husband that "It would have just suited you-sufficiently republican, yet in excellent taste." She went on to note that "We came away at half past 8, & reached home in time to get seasonably soust[?!]" Susan Sedgwick to Theodore Sedgwick II, Jan. 2, 1838, in Sedgwick Family Papers II (Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society), Box 8.15. Sedgwick a.s.sured her husband that "It would have just suited you-sufficiently republican, yet in excellent taste." She went on to note that "We came away at half past 8, & reached home in time to get seasonably soust[?!]"

7. New York Tribune New York Tribune, Jan. 3, 1844. See also ibid., Dec. 24, 1845: "Who can devote even one day to hilarity and social enjoyment until he shall have at least devoted as much of his worldly substance as that day's enjoyment will cost him to the relief of the misery so imminent and appalling."

8. Ibid., Dec. 30, 1853. Ibid., Dec. 30, 1853.

9. Ibid., Dec. 22, 1854. Ibid., Dec. 22, 1854.

10. Ibid. Ibid.

11. Ibid., Jan. 1, 1848. Greeley went on to insist on the need to attack poverty as a systemic problem. Ibid., Jan. 1, 1848. Greeley went on to insist on the need to attack poverty as a systemic problem.

12. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26 and 27, 1855.

13. "How to Help the Poor," "How to Help the Poor," New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1854.

14. Ibid., Dec. 26, 1866. See also ibid., Dec. 25, 1868 ("The evils of individual, which is, as a general rule, indiscriminate, charity, are almost equal to its benefits; and the truly charitable will wisely give what they can to the organized societies") and Dec. 23, 1871 ("A dollar given to an inst.i.tution like this [the Children's Aid Society] is sure to be more fruitful than twenty bestowed in undiscriminating alms"). Ibid., Dec. 26, 1866. See also ibid., Dec. 25, 1868 ("The evils of individual, which is, as a general rule, indiscriminate, charity, are almost equal to its benefits; and the truly charitable will wisely give what they can to the organized societies") and Dec. 23, 1871 ("A dollar given to an inst.i.tution like this [the Children's Aid Society] is sure to be more fruitful than twenty bestowed in undiscriminating alms").

15. Ibid., Dec. 25, 1893. Ibid., Dec. 25, 1893.

16. For the cloakmakers, see ibid., Dec. 26, 1894. For the cloakmakers, see ibid., Dec. 26, 1894.

17. For the Five Points, see Paul Boyer, For the Five Points, see Paul Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses and Moral Order in America, 18201920 Urban Ma.s.ses and Moral Order in America, 18201920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 6869, 81. For the missions: Marilyn Irvin Holt, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 6869, 81. For the missions: Marilyn Irvin Holt, The Orphan Trains: Placing Out in America The Orphan Trains: Placing Out in America (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 98102. See also Peter C. Holloran, (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 98102. See also Peter C. Holloran, Bostons Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 18301930 Bostons Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 18301930 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1994); and Luc Sante, (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1994); and Luc Sante, Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), esp. pp. 305312. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), esp. pp. 305312.

18. [Emma Brace,] [Emma Brace,] The Life of Charles Loring Brace, Chiefly Told in His Own Letters The Life of Charles Loring Brace, Chiefly Told in His Own Letters (London, 1894), 7576. (London, 1894), 7576.

19. Charles Loring Brace, Charles Loring Brace, Short Sermons to Newsboys Short Sermons to Newsboys (New York, 1866), 13. For Brace, see Boyer, (New York, 1866), 13. For Brace, see Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 97107; Holt, The Orphan Trains The Orphan Trains, 4179, 120155. See also Christine Stansell, City of Women: s.e.x and Cla.s.s in New York, 17891860 City of Women: s.e.x and Cla.s.s in New York, 17891860 (New York: Knopf, 1986); Thomas Bender, (New York: Knopf, 1986); Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Nineteenth-Century America Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1975). (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1975).

20. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 25, 1855. A recent examination of New York's orphan children is Bruce Bellingham, "Waifs and Strays: Child Abandonment, Foster Care, and Families in Mid-Nineteenth-Century New York," in Peter Mandler, ed., The Uses of Charity: The Poor on Relief in the Nineteenth-Century Metropolis The Uses of Charity: The Poor on Relief in the Nineteenth-Century Metropolis (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 123160. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 123160.

21. Boyer, Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 98. For a history of the movement, see Holt, The Orphan Trains The Orphan Trains, pa.s.sim.

22. Boyer, Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 99 ("excursion to Hoboken" quotation); Brace, The Dangerous Cla.s.ses of New York, and Twenty Years' Work Among Them The Dangerous Cla.s.ses of New York, and Twenty Years' Work Among Them (New York, 1872), 114. (New York, 1872), 114.

23. Boyer, Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 100.

24. Charles Loring Brace, Charles Loring Brace, Gesta Christi; or, A History of Humane Progress Under Christianity Gesta Christi; or, A History of Humane Progress Under Christianity (New York, 1882), 95, 414. (New York, 1882), 95, 414.

25. Bender, Bender, Towards an Urban Vision Towards an Urban Vision, 147149.

26. Brace, Brace, Sermons to Newsboys Sermons to Newsboys, 38. The most sympathetic and perceptive modern treatment of newsboy culture is David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), esp. pp. 6287 and 149166. Nasaw's study deals with the period 190020, when newsboy culture had changed (for example, most early-twentieth-century newsboys lived with their own families). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), esp. pp. 6287 and 149166. Nasaw's study deals with the period 190020, when newsboy culture had changed (for example, most early-twentieth-century newsboys lived with their own families).

27. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1867.

28. Brace, Brace, Sermons to Newsboys Sermons to Newsboys, 108, 112, 117.

29. Ibid., 26. Ibid., 26.

30. Kevin Gilbert, "Friends or Dependents: Christmas Charity Dinners and Changing Images of the Poor in New York City, 18971915" (unpublished seminar paper, University of Ma.s.sachusetts at Amherst, 1993). On the newsboys' code of honor, see Brace, Kevin Gilbert, "Friends or Dependents: Christmas Charity Dinners and Changing Images of the Poor in New York City, 18971915" (unpublished seminar paper, University of Ma.s.sachusetts at Amherst, 1993). On the newsboys' code of honor, see Brace, Dangerous Cla.s.ses Dangerous Cla.s.ses, 9899.

31. Boyer, Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 98.

32. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1871; Dec. 26, 1872; and Dec. 26, 1873. Roosevelt was present once again in 1884 (ibid., Dec. 26, 1884).

33. New York Times New York Times, Dec. 26, 1890. "This compilation does not make any allowance for the turkey bones, but, on the other hand, the weight of the newsboys before beginning the repast is placed rather high."

34. Ibid. Ibid.

35. Boyer, Boyer, Urban Ma.s.ses Urban Ma.s.ses, 98.

36. Brace, Brace, Dangerous Cla.s.ses Dangerous Cla.s.ses, 395.

37. Horatio Alger, Jr., Horatio Alger, Jr., Ragged d.i.c.k; or, Street Life in New York Ragged d.i.c.k; or, Street Life in New York (Boston, 1868). Most of the other books about newsboys were anonymously auth.o.r.ed. These include (Boston, 1868). Most of the other books about newsboys were anonymously auth.o.r.ed. These include John El-lard, The Newsboy John El-lard, The Newsboy (Philadelphia, 1860), a nonfiction account of the "Newsboys' Aid Society," founded in Philadelphia in 1858; (Philadelphia, 1860), a nonfiction account of the "Newsboys' Aid Society," founded in Philadelphia in 1858; Tom Brice, the News-boy Tom Brice, the News-boy (New York, 1862); (New York, 1862); Willie Wilson, the Newsboy Willie Wilson, the Newsboy (New York, 1865), a moralistic tale of a good boy; (New York, 1865), a moralistic tale of a good boy; Luke Darrell, the Chicago Newsboy Luke Darrell, the Chicago Newsboy (Chicago, 1866); and [Thomas March Clark,] (Chicago, 1866); and [Thomas March Clark,] John Whopper the Newsboy John Whopper the Newsboy (Boston, 1871), a fantasy adventure story of a newsboy's trip to China. (Boston, 1871), a fantasy adventure story of a newsboy's trip to China.

38. Elizabeth Oakes Smith, Elizabeth Oakes Smith, The Newsboy The Newsboy (New York, 1854; reprinted 1870), 1718. Robert says later, "'I never had any father; I was sea-born.'" (156). (New York, 1854; reprinted 1870), 1718. Robert says later, "'I never had any father; I was sea-born.'" (156).

39. Ibid., 17 ("agin my natur"), 374 ("miracle of goodness"). Ibid., 17 ("agin my natur"), 374 ("miracle of goodness").

40. E.H.C., "The Sufferer," E.H.C., "The Sufferer," Child's Friend Child's Friend, Apr., 1844, 1922.

41. Louise Chandler Moulton, "Just a Little Bit of Christmas," Louise Chandler Moulton, "Just a Little Bit of Christmas," Youth's Companion Youth's Companion, Dec. 21, 1865, 200. For other examples of poor children who do not ask for anything, see "Nelly's Christmas Gift," ibid., Dec. 20, 1877, 434435 (in this story the little heroine is black); and also the two stories to be discussed below.

42. Annie Fraust, "Christmas for Rich and Poor," Annie Fraust, "Christmas for Rich and Poor," G.o.dey's Lady's Book G.o.dey's Lady's Book 57 (Dec. 1858), 513516. See also Frank Lee Benedict, "The Orphan's New-Year's Eve," 57 (Dec. 1858), 513516. See also Frank Lee Benedict, "The Orphan's New-Year's Eve," Peterson's Magazine Peterson's Magazine 31 (Jan. 1864), 2734, in which an impoverished orphan turns out to be the illegitimate daughter of the rich heroine's closest friend. 31 (Jan. 1864), 2734, in which an impoverished orphan turns out to be the illegitimate daughter of the rich heroine's closest friend.

43. This story is also about the conflict between older notions of family structure, which gave fathers veto power over their children's marriage partners, and emerging notions which accorded children free choice. From still another angle, the daughter's "elopement"-and her subsequent banishment from the family-can be read as a symbolic way of touching on the issue of premarital s.e.x and illegitimacy. Ironically, from this angle such stories do deal with social cla.s.s, after all-in the form of the risk of downward mobility posed by s.e.xual misconduct. (For a discussion of this question in a male context, see the story of young Robert Hamlin in Eliza Leslie's story "Snow-Balling," discussed in This story is also about the conflict between older notions of family structure, which gave fathers veto power over their children's marriage partners, and emerging notions which accorded children free choice. From still another angle, the daughter's "elopement"-and her subsequent banishment from the family-can be read as a symbolic way of touching on the issue of premarital s.e.x and illegitimacy. Ironically, from this angle such stories do deal with social cla.s.s, after all-in the form of the risk of downward mobility posed by s.e.xual misconduct. (For a discussion of this question in a male context, see the story of young Robert Hamlin in Eliza Leslie's story "Snow-Balling," discussed in Chapter 3 Chapter 3.) 44. Susan Warner, Susan Warner, Carl Krinken: His Christmas Stocking Carl Krinken: His Christmas Stocking (New York, 1854), 14, 22. This point follows out the implication of scenes about consumerism from (New York, 1854), 14, 22. This point follows out the implication of scenes about consumerism from The Wide, Wide World The Wide, Wide World (discussed in (discussed in Chapter 4 Chapter 4).

45. William Dean Howells, "Christmas Every Day," in William Dean Howells, "Christmas Every Day," in Christmas Every Day and Other Stories Told for Children Christmas Every Day and Other Stories Told for Children (New York, 1893), 322. (New York, 1893), 322.