Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy Part 22

6For wuwei , "nonaction," see Important Terms. A study of this idea, which explores the notion across different schools of early Chinese philosophy, is Edward G. Slingerland's Effortless Action: Wuwei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

7Cf. a similar line in chapter 43.

8Cf. chapter 34.

9This line also occurs in chapters 10 and 51.

10This line also appears in chapters 10, 51, and 77.

11Recognizing that the credit for their success lies with the Way and not with themselves is a characteristic att.i.tude of Daoist sages. For similar ideas, see chapters 9, 17, 34, and 77. This and the previous line occur together in chapter 77.

12For other pa.s.sages discussing "precious goods," see chapters 12 and 64.

13Cf. a.n.a.lects 12.18.

14See xin , "heart," under Important Terms.

15See zhi , "wisdom," under Important Terms.

16The following four lines, preceeded by two lines from chapter 52, appear in chapter 56.

17This is the only occurrence in the text of the character di , "Lord," a name for the high G.o.d or supreme ancestral spirit of ancient China. For other pa.s.sages concerning xiang , "image," see chapters 14, 21, 35, and 41.

18"Straw dogs" were used as ceremonial offerings. Before and during the ceremony, they were protected and cherished, but as soon as the ceremony ended, they were discarded and defiled. Others interpret the characters in this expression as "straw and dogs." The point is the same.

19Cf the opening lines of chapter 23.

20The reference is to a "tilting vessel" that would fall over and pour out its contents if filled to the top.

21For similar lines, see chapters 2, 17, 34, and 77.

22For other examples of "the One," see chapters 22, 39, and 42.

23See qi under Important Terms.

24This line also appears in chapters 2 and 51.

25This line also appears in chapters 2, 51, and 77.

26Chapter 51 concludes with the same four lines. For another pa.s.sage concerning xuande , "Enigmatic Virtue," see chapter 65.

27Literally, only by relying on "nothing" (i.e., the empty s.p.a.ce of the hub) can the wheel turn and the carriage roll.

28These sets of five refer to conventional standards of evaluation in regard to the different sensory faculties. The pa.s.sage is not a rejection of the pleasures of the senses nor does it express skepticism regarding the senses per se. Rather, like the view one finds in Zhuangzi, chapter 2 (see pp. 21324), it expresses a profound distrust of coventional categories and values and advocates moderation of sensual pleasures.

29This line also appears in chapters 38 and 72.

30Cf. the thought expressed in these lines to what one finds in chapter 35.

31Returning to an ideal past state is a common theme in the text. For other examples see chapters 16, 25, 28, 30, and 52.

32For other pa.s.sages that concern xiang, "image," see chapters 4, 21, 35, and 41.

33Pu , "unhewn wood," is a symbol for anything in its unadulterated natural state. In other contexts I will translate it as "simplicity," but here and in certain later pa.s.sages the metaphor is an important part of the pa.s.sage's sense. For other examples, see chapters 19, 28, 32, 37, and 57.

34This line also appears in chapter 52.

35This line appears again in chapter 23. I interpret it as an expression of the Daodejings characteristic view on de , "Virtue." For a discussion of the idea of "Virtue" in the Daodejing and how it differs from related Confucian conceptions of "Virtue" or "moral charisma," see my "The Concept of de ('Virtue') in the Laozi" in Csikszentmihalyi and Ivanhoe (1999), pp. 23957. For other pa.s.sages concerning the concept of trust, see chapters 49 and 63.

36Sages are reluctant and slow to speak, but their words are worthy of complete trust.

37Cf chapters 2, 9, 34, and 77.

38Literally, "We are this way ziran ." See ziran under Important Terms. For other examples, see chapters 23, 25, 51, and 64.

39The idea that more can lead to less and its implication that less can yield more is a theme that appears in several places in the text. For examples see chapters 19 and 38.

40Literally, "unhewn wood." See n. 33.

41In this pa.s.sage, the author enters into an autobiographical mode. See also chapters 69 and 70.

42For other pa.s.sages concerning xiang, "image," see chapters 4, 14, 35, and 41.

43For other examples of "the One," see chapters 10, 39, and 42.

44See chapter 24 for a set of lines similar to the preceeding four.

45The same line appears in chapter 66.

46While the Daodejing does not cite ancient sages or texts by name, here and elsewhere it clearly does quote ancient sources. For other examples see chapters 42, 62, and 69.

47The same line appears in chapter 17. See n. 35.

48See chapter 22 for a set of lines similar to the preceeding four.

49This line appears again in chapter 31.

50 There is a play here on the difference between one's ming , "proper name," and one's zi , "style." In traditional Chinese society one does not use the former, personal name in public. And so the author can be understood as saying he is not intimately familiar with the Dao and so knows only its style, or perhaps that it would be unseemly to speak its true and proper name to unfamiliars.

51 Cf the description of the Way found in the Zhuangzi, chapter 6, pp. 23542.

52 "Natural" is ziran.

53 Cf. chapter 45.

54 Cf. chapter 62.

55 The expression ximing , "inheriting enlightenment," is open to numerous interpretations. I take it as describing the good that bad people inherit from those who already are enlightened.

56 Or "simplicity." See n. 33.

57 Qi , "vessel" or "implement," is a common metaphor for a government official. Playing on this image, it carries the slightly negative connotation of someone with limited "capacity." Cf. a.n.a.lects 2.12 and the note to that pa.s.sage.

58 For qu tianxia , "gaining the world," see chapters 48 and 57.

59 These two lines also appear in chapter 64.

60 The final three lines also appear at the end of chapter 55.

61 The left side being a.s.sociated with happy and auspicious events and the right side with sad and inauspicious events.

62 On the idea of being "nameless," see chapters 1, 37, and 41.

63 Or "simplicity." See n. 33.

64 Cf. the similar line in chapter 44.

65 For the value of zu , "contentment," see chapters 44 and 46.

66 Cf. the teaching quoted in chapter 42.

67 Cf. chapter 2.

68 Cf. chapters 2, 9, 17, and 77.

69 Literally, one could ming , "name," it or cla.s.sify it among the small.

70 For other pa.s.sages that concern xiang, "image," see chapters 4, 14, 21, and 41.

71 The proper sense of liqi , "sharp implements," is a matter of considerable controversy. Whether it refers to the weapons of the state, its ministers, labor-saving tools, the Daoist sage, or something else is hard to say, so I have left it ambiguous. Cf. the use in chapter 57.

72 Cf. the similar line in chapter 48.

73 For zihua , "transform themselves," see chapter 57.

74 Or "nameless simplicity." See n. 33. On the idea of being "nameless," see chapters 1, 32, and 41.

75 The word rendered here as "ritually correct" is li , which in other contexts is translated as "having propriety."

76 This line also appears in chapters 12 and 72.

77 For other examples of "the One," see chapters 10, 22, and 42.

78 The same expressions occur in chapter 42.

79 For other pa.s.sages that concern xiang , "image," see chapters 4, 14, 21, and 35.

80 On the idea of being "nameless," see chapters 1, 32, and 37.

81 The precise referents of these terms are hard to determine. I take the Way to be the most inclusive term designating the hidden, underlying source of things. The "one" would then be its xiang , "image," the closest thing we can have to a picture or representation of the Way. (For other examples, see chapters 10, 22, and 39.) The "two" would then be the fundamental qi , "vital energies," yin and yang (see qi, yin and yang under Important Terms). These, together with our image of the Way as a unified whole, give rise to everything in the world. A similar scheme is described in the appendices to the Changes. This process, whatever its particulars, was understood as a natural progression. There was no creator and the "nothing" out of which things arose is a primal state of undifferentiated vital energy, the state of no things but not absolute Nothingness. See Slingerland's comments on these pa.s.sages in Effortless Action, op. cit.

82 See chapter 39.

83 Cf. the similar line in chapter 2.

84 For the value of "contentment," see chapters 33 and 46.

85 Cf. the similar line in chapter 32.

86 Very close to the city, thus showing a heightened state of mobilization.

87 For the value of "contentment," see chapters 33 and 44.

88 Until one reaches the state of wuwei, "nonaction."

89 Cf the similar lines in chapter 37.

90 For wushi , "no activity," see chapters 57 and 63. For qu tianxia, "gaining the world," see chapters 29 and 57.

91 I read this line, and the line three lines below it, as playing on the etymological and semantic relationship between de , "virtue," and de , "to get." Since those with virtue naturally are good to and trust others, they accrue ("get") Virtue; this enables them to gain ("get") the support of others and realize ("get") their greater ends. Cf. chapters 17, 23, 27, and 38.

92 Cf. chapter 76.

93 This pa.s.sage has been interpreted in a wide variety of ways. I take its general theme to be the preservation of one's natural span of life, here connected to the idea that wanting something too badly often leads to its opposite. Some are fated to live long and others to die young. But about one in three bring misfortune on themselves. The missing person in ten is of course the sage. By not doing, sages avoid creating a place for death to enter.

94 Cf. chapter 75.

95 This line also appears in chapters 2 and 10.

96 This line also appears in chapters 2, 10, and 77.

97 Chapter 10 concludes with these same four lines. For xuande , "Enigmatic Virtue," see chapter 65.

98 This line also appears in chapter 16.

99 This and the preceeding line also appear in chapter 56.

100 See a.n.a.lects 6.14 (not in this volume) for a related use of the world jing , "shortcut."

101 "It" refers to the Way. Note that in this and the following lines the word translated as "Virtue" also clearly has the sense of a kind of "power."

102 The progression from cultivating the Way in oneself to cultivating it throughout the empire is reminiscent of the progression one sees in chapter 4 of the Daxue , "Great Learning," a work not included in this volume. There we are told that those who wish to "make bright their shining Virtue throughout the world" must first "order their states." Those who wish to order their states must first "regulate their families." Those who wish to regulate their families must first "cultivate themselves" and so on. Wing-tsit Chan (1963), p. 196, points out that Mencius identifies this basic idea as a "common saying" in Mengzi 4A5 (not in this volume).

103 The early Confucian Mengzi also uses the newborn as an image for his ideal state of mind. See his discussion of the chizi zhi xin , "a child's heart," in Mengzi 4B12, not in this volume.

104 Cf the closing lines of Zhuangzi, chapter 5 (see p. 235), where Zhuangzi says, "Follow the natural and do not yisheng , 'help life along.'"

105Early Daoists tended to advocate allowing one's qi to find its natural course. For example, see the "fasting of the heart and mind" pa.s.sage in chapter 4 of the Zhuangzi, p. 228. They were opposed to those such as the early Confucian Mengzi, who argued that the mind should guide the vital energies. See Mengzi's discussion of nourishing the "floodlike qi" in Mengzi 2A2.