Pox: An American History Part 8

75 "Hospital Spread of Smallpox," JAMA, June 16, 1894, reprinted in ibid., June 15, 1994, 1812. "AirBorne Smallpox," Scientific American Supplement, 1422 (Apr. 4, 1903): 2273738. London Times quoted in ibid., 22737.

76 NCBOH 190304, 16 (recalling Durham episode circa 1899). "North Side Men Indignant," Omaha Daily Bee, Jan. 17, 1899, 5; "Object to the Pest House," ibid., Jul. 11, 1899, 7. "Fire Destroys Pest House," ibid., Nov. 9, 1899, 12; "Cause of Action Burned," ibid., Nov. 14, 1899, 7. On Houston, see "City Council Meeting," Houston Daily Post, Nov. 21, 1899, 6. On Union County, see "Here and There," Hopkinsville Kentuckian, Apr. 17, 1900, 8. On Bradford, see "Pest House Fired by Mob," AC, Apr. 12, 1901, 3. On Turtle Creek, see "Quaker Mob Defies Sheriff," AC, May 14, 1900, 1.

77 "Tried to Burn a Smallpox Hospital," NYT, Mar. 10, 1901, 3. "Police at Orange Hospital," ibid., Mar. 11, 1901, 3. "Smallpox Hospital Razed by Mob," ibid., Mar. 12, 1901, 2. "Hospital Ruins Set on Fire," ibid., Mar. 13, 1901, 2.

78 "The Outrage at Orange," ibid., Mar. 13, 1901, 8. "Orange's Smallpox Hospital," ibid., Mar. 14, 1901, 3. "Plea of an Orange Resident," ibid., Mar. 15, 1901, 8.

79 Potts v. Breen, 167 Ill. 67, 76 (1897).

80 Jack London, War of the Cla.s.ses (New York: Macmillan Co., 1905), 27677.

81 Ibid. Jack London, The Road (New York: Macmillan, 1907, 1916), 7497, esp. 90.

82 London, The Road, 90.

SEVEN:THE ANTIVACCINATIONISTS.

1 "The Smallpox Versus Dr. Pfeiffer," MN, Feb. 22, 1902, 363. "The Case of Dr. Pfeiffer," BMSJ, 146 (1902): 20111.

2 "Quarantine More Rigid," BG, Nov. 26, 1901, 4. Durgin repeated his challenge at the annual meeting of the Ma.s.sachusetts boards of health; "Smallpox Talk," ibid., Jan. 31, 1902, 2.

3 BOSHD 1901, 4345. "Smallpox in Roxbury," BG, May 18, 1901, 9. "First Death from Smallpox," ibid., Oct. 27, 1901, 16. "Boston's Weekly Health Report," ibid., Nov. 3, 1901, 16. "Ninety Percent Not Vaccinated," ibid., Nov. 23, 1901, 11. "Eight New Cases," ibid., Nov. 25, 1901, 8. "Virus Squad Out," ibid., Nov. 18, 1901, 7. See Michael Albert et al., "The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 19011902," NEJM, 344 (Feb. 1, 2001), 37579; and Michael Albert et al., "Smallpox Manifestations and Survival during the Boston Epidemic of 1901 to 1903," AIM, 137 (Dec. 17, 2002): 9931000. In a study of surviving medical files from the Southampton Street hospital, Albert et al. concluded that "the Boston epidemic was caused by the cla.s.sic variola major form" of the smallpox virus. Ibid., 993.

4 "Vaccination Is the Curse of Childhood," antivaccination circular distributed during the epidemic of smallpox in Boston, 1901, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University, http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/5817279, accessed Jul. 8, 2009. Samuel W. Abbott, "Legislation with Reference to Small-Pox and Vaccination," MC, 19 (1902), 163.

5 "Retirement of Dr. Samuel H. Durgin from the Boston Board of Health," AJPH, 2 (May 1912): 38495; C. V. Chapin, "Doctor Samuel H. Durgin," ibid., 35758. "Vaccination Is the Curse."

6 "Pfeiffer Yet Alive," BG, Feb. 10, 1902, 1. "Wonderful, But True," advertis.e.m.e.nt, ibid., Jul. 22, 1900, 22. "His Long Fast Broken," ibid., Mar. 27, 1900, 6. "Dr. Pfeiffer Protests," ibid., Apr. 29, 1901, 8. "Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox," ibid., Feb. 9, 1902, 1. "In the Interest of Science, Boston Physician Fasts a Month," SFC, Aug. 24, 1901, 6. Pfeiffer's interest in free speech made him known to the radical Emma Goldman, who nursed him in 1904, when he was stricken with pneumonia. Emma Goldman to Alexander Berkman, Jan. 18, 1904, in Emma Goldman: A Doc.u.mentary History of the American Years: Making Speech Free, 19021909, ed. Candace Falk (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), vol. 2: 129. On Our Home Rights, see "Exchanges," Metaphysical Magazine, Jan. 1902, 7778. Tenth Census of the United States (1880): Schedule 1-Population: Franklin, Gloucester, New Jersey, Enumeration District No. 92.

7 "Its Big Benefits," BG, Dec. 20, 1901, 5. "Dr. John H. McCollom," NYT, Jun. 15, 13. Advertis.e.m.e.nt for Harvard University Medical Department, BMSJ, 143 (Nov. 22, 1900), 34. See, e.g., C.-E. A. Winslow, "The Case for Vaccination," SCI, new ser., 18 (1903): 1017.

8 "Its Big Benefits."

9 Pfeiffer to Durgin, quoted in "Smallpox Versus Dr. Pfeiffer," 363.

10 Figures from BOSHD 1901, 4445. Quote from BOSHD 1902, 36. "Smallpox Decreasing," BG, Dec. 27, 1901, 7.

11 William N. Macartney, Fifty Years a Country Doctor (New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1938), 245. "Pfeiffer Yet Alive," BG, Feb. 10, 1902, 1. "Funeral Friday of Dr. Paul Carson," ibid., Nov. 28, 1923, 6.

12 Commonwealth of Ma.s.sachusetts, The Journal of the Senate for the Year 1902 (Boston, 1902), 333. "Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox."

13 "Current Comment," PMJ, 9 (Jan. 4, 1902), 5. Macartney, Fifty Years, 246. KBOH 189899, 98. California State Medical Journal, January 1905, quoted in FBOH 1904, 114. Dr. James Nevins Hyde, "The Late Epidemic of Smallpox in the United States," PSM, 59 (Oct. 1901), 565. Michael Specter, "The Fear Factor," New Yorker, Oct. 12, 2009, 39.

14 C. F. Nichols, Vaccination: A Blunder in Poisons, 61. "Opposed to Vaccination," NYT, Mar. 29, 1902, 10. The threat of gunplay was a cliche of manly antivaccinationist speech. "I would stand in my door with a Winchester and a brace of six-shooters and forbid any such outrages upon my family, if it cost me my life. Every other free, brave man would do the same." "Vaccination Tyranny," The Life ("A monthly magazine of Christian metaphysics"), November 1905, 22223.

15 Samuel W. Abbott, The Past and Present Conditions of Public Hygiene and State Medicine in the United States (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1900).

16 John Pitcairn, Vaccination (Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, 1907), 8. "John Pitcairn," NYT, Jul. 23, 1916, 17. Following historian Steven Hahn, I am employing "a broad understanding of politics and the political that is relational and historical, and that encompa.s.ses collective struggles for what might be termed socially meaningful power." A Nation Under Our Feet, 3. See James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance.

17 "Will Ignore Leverson," NYT, Aug. 17, 1900, 2. "Defies the Health Board," ibid., Jan. 7, 1901, 2. "To Lead Fight on Vaccination," CT, Jan. 6, 1901, A2. For a revealing study of late nineteenth-century libertarian radicalism in America, see David M. Rabban, Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years, esp. 2376. On the transformation of governance in the Progressive Era, see Michael Willrich, City of Courts.

18 "An Anti-Vaccination Riot in Montreal," MR, 28 (Oct. 3, 1885), 380. Jeffrey D. Needell, "The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against 'Modernization' in Belle-Epoque Rio de Janeiro," Hispanic American Historical Review, 60 (1980): 43149.

19 "The Hon. Frederick Dougla.s.s," Vaccination Inquirer and Health Review (London), 4 (Mar. 1883), 200. (Excerpt from an 1882 letter.) Paul Finkelman, "Garrison's Const.i.tution: The Covenant of Death and How It Was Made, Prologue, 32 (Winter 2000), http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2000/winter/garrisons-const.i.tution-1.html, accessed Jun. 12, 2009. Pfeiffer quoted in "Exchanges," in Metaphysical Magazine, Jan. 1902, 77. J. W. Hodge, The Vaccination Superst.i.tion: Prophylaxis to Be Realized Through the Attainment of Health, Not by the Propagation of Disease (read before the Western New York Homeopathic Medical Society in Buffalo, Apr. 11, 1902), pamphlet held at CHM, 49. "Dr. Jas. M. Peebles Dies, Almost 100," NYT, Feb. 16, 1922, 12. On British antivaccinationists and their appropriation of abolitionist rhetoric, see Durbach, Bodily Matters, esp. 8384. The papers of William Lloyd Garrison, Jr., including two boxes of materials on "Anti-Vaccination" (Boxes 176 and 177), are part of GFP.

20 "The Anti-Vaccinationists," Northwestern Lancet (Minneapolis), 21 (Feb. 1, 1901), 61. On the groups cited between 1879 and 1900, see Martin Kaufman, "The American Anti-Vaccinationists and Their Arguments," BHM, 50 (1976), 46566. Membership numbers for 1901 from Brooklyn Daily Eagle Almanac, 1901 (Brooklyn, 1901), 308. On California: "Question of Compulsory Vaccination," SFC, Oct. 16, 1904, 7. On Colorado: "Medical legislation in Colorado." NYMJ, Mar. 2, 1901, 378. On Connecticut: "The Anti-Vaccinators of Connecticut," by "One Who Knows Them," American Medical Journal, 31 (Jan. 1903), 912. On Ma.s.sachusetts: see the Ma.s.sachusetts Anti-Compulsory Vaccination Society's 1902 pamphlet, "A Vaccination Crusade and What There Is in It" GFP, Box 177, Folder 8. On Minnesota: "Sanitation and Legislation in Minnesota," St. Paul Medical Journal, 5 (June 1903), esp. 45657. On Missouri: "Vaccination Tyranny," The Life ("A monthly magazine of Christian metaphysics"), November 1905, 22223. On Pennsylvania: Pitcairn, Vaccination. On Utah: "Vaccination War On," SLH, Jan. 24, 1901, 8. On Berkeley: "Bitter Fights Against Law," SFC, Aug. 12, 1904, 4. On Cleveland: "Medical News," CMJ, 2 (Mar. 1903), 164. On Milwaukee: Leavitt, Healthiest City, 94, 267. On St. Paul: J. W. Griggs, of the AntiVaccination Society of St. Paul, to William Lloyd Garrison, Oct. 26, 1904, GFP, Box 176, Folder 14. On the General Federation of Women's Clubs, see Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers.

21 Leo Tolstoy to William Tebb, quoted in Antivaccination News and Sanatorian (New York), June 1895, 7, GFP, Box 176, Folder 11. [George] Bernard Shaw, Collected Letters: 18741897, ed. Dan H. Laurence (New York: Viking, 1965), 448. Alfred Russel Wallace, "Vaccination a Delusion-Its Penal Enforcement a Crime," in idem, The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1898), 232. Vaccination was edited by F. D. Blue and published for the Anti-Vaccination Society of America as "a journal of health, justice and liberty, that tells the truth about vaccination." The Liberator was the official organ of the Minnesota Health League and billed as "a monthly journal devoted to freedom from medical superst.i.tion and tyranny." Its editor, from 1902 to 1907, was Lora C. Little. See William Tebb, Sanitation, Not Vaccination, the True Protection Against Small-Pox, A Paper Read Before the Second International Vaccination Congress at Cologne, October 12th, 1881 (London, n.d.), CHM. "Antivaccination Movement," MN, Feb. 11, 1899, 178. On Harry Weinberger's career as an antivaccination attorney during the 1910s, see HWP, esp. Box 21, Folders 311, Box 48, Folders 414.

22 Nadja Durbach, " 'They Might as Well Brand Us': Working-Cla.s.s Resistance to Compulsory Vaccination in Victorian England," Social History of Medicine, 13 (2000): 4562. Durbach, "Cla.s.s, Gender, and the Conscientious Objector to Vaccination, 18981907," Journal of British Studies, 41 (2002): 5883. Durbach, Bodily Matters, 197.

23 Martin Kauffman was perhaps the first scholar to point out the connection between antivaccinationism and the licensure issue in the United States. Kauffman mistakenly concluded that this was practically all there was to antivaccinationism, and he saw the licensure debate as largely a professional grievance, rather than a larger struggle for freedom of belief. Kauffman, "American Anti-Vaccinationists."

24 R. Swinburne Clymer, Vaccination Brought Home to You (Terre Haute, IN: Frank D. Blue, 1904), 27. On the history of alternative medicine, see esp. John Duffy, From Humors to Medical Science, 8094; Johnston, ed., Politics of Healing; and James C. Whorton, Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

25 Ma.s.sachusetts Sanitary Commission, Report of a General Plan for the Promotion of Public and Personal Health (Boston, 1850), 58.

26 Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 161. Whorton, Nature Cures, 919.

27 Whorton, Nature Cures, 69, 133, esp. 134.

28 John Duffy, The Sanitarians, 153. Whorton, Nature Cures, 13539.

29 "American Medical a.s.sociation Advising Compulsory Vaccination," Indiana Medical Journal, 18 (May 1900), 470. See Leslie J. Reagan, "Law and Medicine," in The Cambridge History of Law in America, ed. Michael Grossberg and Christopher Tomlins (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), vol. 3, 23267.

30 Davidovitch, "Negotiating Dissent," esp. 13. J. W. Hodge, "The Decline in Smallpox Which Preceded and Accompanied the Introduction of Vaccination-To What Was It Due?," Medical Visitor, 19 (June 1903), 269. New England Eclectics quoted in Alexander Wilder, "From 'Vaccination,' " Health, Oct. 1901, 340. Clymer, Vaccination Brought Home to You. "The Late Dr. T. V. Gifford," Phrenological Journal, 116 (Nov. 1903), 164.

31 Whorton, Nature Cures, 19. Johnston, "Introduction," in Politics of Healing, 111.

32 Jenny Franchot, "Spiritualism," in A Companion to American Thought, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and James T. Kloppenberg (Cambridge, MA: Wiley, 1995), 65051. "Smallpox in Zion City," NYT, Aug. 12, 1904, 7. Henry Warner Bowden, "Dowie, John Alexander," http://www.anb.org/articles/08/08-00399.html, American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, accessed June 9, 2009.

33 State ex rel. Adams v. Burdge, 95 Wis. 390 (1897). "Christian Science and Vaccination," BMJ, 39 (Dec. 1899), 369. "Dies of Disease He Defied," NYT, Jul. 26, 1902, 5. James Colgrove, State of Immunity, 57.

34 Whorton, Nature Cures, 135. Mary Baker Eddy, "Obey the Law," Christian Science Journal, 18 (Mar. 1901), 724. "Christian Scientists' Change of Front," ibid., Nov. 14 ,1902, 2. "Christian Science Did It," NYT, Aug. 19, 1903, 1. See John C. Myers, "Christian Science and the Law," Law Notes, 12 (April 1908), 56.

35 Griggs, introduction to Lora C. Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring: Some Moving Pictures Thrown on the Dead Wall of Official Silence (Minneapolis: The Liberator Pub. Co., 1906), 3. Clymer, Vaccination Brought Home to You, 6. Piehn's story is told in D. D. Palmer and B. J. Palmer, The Science of Chiropractic: Its Principles and Adjustments (Davenport, IA: The Palmer School of Chiropractic, 1906), 37779. On Pitcairn, see Colgrove, State of Immunity, 5253.

36 "Anti-Vaccination League," NYT, Jan. 6, 1901, 5. BOSHD 1902, 36.

37 Quoted in Andrew d.i.c.kson White, "New Chapters in the Warfare of Science: XII. Miracles and Medicine," Part II, PSM, June 1891, 161. C. W. Amerige, Vaccination a Curse (n.p., 1895).

38 Alfred Milnes, What About Vaccination? The Vaccination Question Plainly Put and Plainly Answered (London: The Anti-Vaccination League, 1893), 20.

39 J. W. Hodge, "The Decline in Smallpox Which Preceded and Accompanied the Introduction of Vaccination-To What Was it Due?," Medical Visitor, 19 (June 1903), 25278, esp. 261, 276. See Milnes, What About Vaccination?, 1418; Charles Creighton, "Vaccination," Encyclopedia Britannica , 9th ed. (London, 1888); Edgar Crookshank, "Professor Crookshank's Evidence Before the Royal Vaccination Commission," BRMJ, 2 (1894), esp. 618.

40 Hodge, "Decline in Smallpox," 258, 276.

41 Pitcairn, Vaccination, 4. Wallace, "Vaccination a Delusion," esp. 27186. Hodge, Vaccination Superst.i.tion , 10, 2930.

42 Richard L. McCormick, "The Discovery That Business Corrupts Politics: A Reappraisal of the Origins of Progressivism," American Historical Review, 86 (1981): 24774. Daniel T. Rodgers, "In Search of Progressivism," Reviews in American History, 10 (1982), 12324.

43 Felix Oswald, Vaccination A Crime; With Comments on Other Sanitary Superst.i.tions (New York: Physical Culture Publishing Company, 1901), 4, 98. Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 6. "Cope, Porter Farquharson, Publicist, Lecturer," in John W. Jordan, Encyclopedia of Pennsylvania Biography (New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Co., 1914), vol. 2: 696701, esp. 698.

44 "Medical Monopoly," Metaphysical Magazine, 8 (1898), 7077 [From Boston Evening Transcript, Mar. 2, 1898]. Twain quoted in Whorton, Nature Cures, 137.

45 "Medical Monopoly," 70, 71, 72. "Called Trust Legislation," BG, Mar. 3, 1898, 7.

46 "Medical Monopoly," 74, 73, 75. "Against a Medical Trust," BG, Mar. 8, 1898, 6. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1902). Idem, Pragmatism (Cambridge, MA, 1975). For a concise introduction to James's thought, see James T. Kloppenberg, "James, William," in A Companion to American Thought, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and James T. Kloppenberg, 34649.

47 "Dr. Pfeiffer Protests," BG, Apr. 29, 1901, 8. Commonwealth of Ma.s.sachusetts, Revised Laws, 1901,1, Ch. 76, Sec. 9.

48 "Plan War on Vaccine," WP, Feb. 10, 1910, A2. "Antivaccination," MN, May 25, 1895, 586. Editorial, Health, 52 (March 1902): 49596.

49 William M. Welch and Jay F. Schamberg, Acute Contagious Diseases (Philadelphia, 1905), 134. "Antivaccination," MN, May 25, 1895, 586. See, e.g., Oswald, Vaccination A Crime, and Clymer, Vaccination Brought Home to You.

50 Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 5. See Ellen F. Fitzpatrick, ed., Muckraking: Three Landmark Articles (Boston, 1994), 139.

51 Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 74, 18. The best work to date on Little is Johnston, Radical Middle Cla.s.s, 197206, esp. 199.

52 Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 67.

53 Ibid., 78.

54 Ibid., 1214, 29. "Victims of State Blood Poisoning," Liberator, Supplement September 1904, 1, GFP, Box 177, Folder 8. "Vaccination 'Points,' " CC, Aug. 16, 1902, 11. See John H. McCollom, "Vaccination: Accidents and Untoward Effects," MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 125.

55 James Martin Peebles, Vaccination, A Curse and a Menace to Personal Liberty (Battle Creek, MI: Peebles Pub. Co., 1900), 138. Edward Whipple, A Biography of James M. Peebles, M.D., A.M. (Battle Creek, MI: published by author, 1901), 506.

56 Mill and Blackstone quoted in Pitcairn, Vaccination, 12. George E. Macdonald, "The 'Vaccination' Outrage," from Truth Seeker, reprinted in Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order), May 19, 1894, 10. Curiously, Mill himself did not mention the vaccination question in his treatise. His main principle-that "the sole end of which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others"-would seem to cut either way. Compulsory vaccination was a measure intended to protect others, but at least from the antivaccinationist perspective, it was not a necessary measure. As many argued at the time, a man who refused to be vaccinated was, by the vaccinationists' own theory, no threat to the members of the population who were vaccinated. The general response from supporters of vaccination was twofold: 1) there would always be some for whom vaccination did not work; the only way to protect them was by immunizing everyone else; and 2) the best way to permanently stamp out an epidemic in a community was to vaccinate everyone, leaving the virus with no one to infect. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, ed. David Spitz (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 11.1.

57 J. W. Hodge, "Is the Compulsory Infliction of the Jennerian Rite by the State, Expedient, Justifiable, or Possible?" Medical Century, 14 (Dec. 1906), 360. "To All Who Care for Human Rights!" Anti-Vaccination News and Sanatorian (New York), June 1895, 3, GFP, Box 176, Folder 11. Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 6263.

58 Hodge, "Compulsory Infliction," 359. "Topics of the Times," NYT, Dec. 9, 1901, 8.

59 See, generally, Willrich, City of Courts.

60 Hodge, "Decline in Smallpox," 276. B. O. Flower, "How Cleveland Stamped Out Smallpox," Arena, 27 (Apr. 1902), 429.

61 Robert Johnston has argued with great insight that American antivaccinationism const.i.tuted a "middle-cla.s.s populism of the body"; Johnston, Radical Middle Cla.s.s, 178. My own view is that personal liberty concerns loomed larger than populism in most antivaccinationists' thinking about the politics of public health.

62 Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 61. Nichols, Vaccination, 27. Clymer, Vaccination Brought Home to You, 78.

63 Michael Willrich, "The Two Percent Solution: Eugenic Jurisprudence and the Socialization of American Law, 19001930," Law and History Review, 16 (1998): 63111.

64 Little, Crimes of the Cowpox Ring, 6263.

65 "Anti-Vaccinators of Connecticut," 912.

66 State Board of Health data reported in "A Danger Signal," OSE, Feb. 5, 1901.

67 "Vaccination War On." "M'Millan Bill Now Law," OSE, Feb. 22, 1901. "Smallpox and Vaccination," ibid., Jan. 26, 1900. State ex rel. c.o.x v. Board of Ed., 9 Utah 401 (1901). "Supreme Court Decision," OSE, May 1, 1900. "Vaccination War On," SLH, Jan. 24, 1901, 8.

68 The nineteen people I have identified as "activated" members of the Utah league were named in newspaper articles as either having leadership positions in the organization, speaking out against compulsory vaccination at a meeting, or serving on a committee to draft resolutions. Others named as "present" at the meeting I did not a.s.sume to be more than pa.s.sive listeners. I was able to locate eighteen of the nineteen members, unmistakably, in the 1900 U.S. Census. The nineteenth named partic.i.p.ant was J. H. Parry, the name of a well-known book publisher in Salt Lake City at the time. I have a.s.sumed that if this J. H. Parry was not the same publisher, a responsible newspaper would have identified him otherwise to avoid confusion. "Antis Hold Session," SLH, Jan. 14, 1900. "Vaccination War On," ibid., Jan. 24, 1901, 8. Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule 1-Population: Salt Lake City, Salt Lake, Utah.

69 "The Topic of the Hour," Deseret Evening News, Jan. 24, 1901, 4. Denver Post charge of Mormon involvement reported in "A Danger Signal," OSE, Feb. 5, 1901. In a brief account, Thomas G. Alexander has also argued that Mormon church members and leaders were divided on the vaccination question; Mormonism in Transition: A History of the Latter-day Saints, esp. 195. See, generally, Sarah Barringer Gordon, The Mormon Question: Polygamy and Const.i.tutional Conflict in Nineteenth Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, NC, 2002).

70 "Antis Hold Session."

71 Laws of the State of Utah, Pa.s.sed at the Fourth Regular Session Legislature of the State of Utah Held at Salt Lake City, the State Capital, in January, February, and March, 1901 (Salt Lake City, 1901), 15. "Vaccination War On." "Dr. MacLean's Startling Challenge to Anti-Vaccinationists," SLH, Jan. 26, 1901, 1. "Board of Education Defies Board of Health," ibid., Jan. 26, 1901, 1. Thomas Hull, "Events of the Month," Improvement Era, Mar. 4, 1901, 39798.

72 "Governor Wells Vetoes Anti-Vaccination Bill," SLH, Feb. 9, 1901, 1. "McMillan Bill Vetoed," OSE, Feb. 8, 1901. Hull, "Events of the Month." "From the Editor's Notebook," Medical Standard, 24 (March, 1901), 165.

73 "Hearing Over," BG, Feb. 5, 1902, 4. "Repeal Wanted," ibid., Jan. 30, 1902, 2. "Vaccination," ibid., Feb. 1, 1902, 4. "All in Favor," ibid., Feb. 4, 1902, 4. "Loss to Boston," ibid., Feb. 3, 1902, 4. "AntiVaccination," Boston Evening Transcript, Feb. 19, 1902, 1. "Vaccination Bills In," ibid., Feb. 20, 1902, 3.

74 "Hearing Over." "Death From Lockjaw," CC, Jan. 4, 1902, 5.

75 "Seven Bills," BG, Feb. 20, 1902, 3. "Work Well Ahead," ibid., Feb. 23, 1902, 24. "Brakeman's Bill," ibid., Feb. 27, 1902, 6. "Antis Gain Point," ibid., Mar. 11, 1902, 11. "Long and Busy," ibid., Mar. 5, 1902, 4.

76 "An act to prevent compulsory vaccination and to prevent vaccination being made a condition precedent to school attendance," General Laws of the State of Minnesota . . . 1903 (St. Paul, 1903), ch. 299. "Sanitation and Legislation in Minnesota," in section ent.i.tled, "Hygiene and Public Health," ed. Henry M. Bracken [sec. of state board of health], St. Paul Medical Journal, 5 (June 1903), 456. "Anti-Vaccination Law in Minnesota," Medical Sentinel (Portland, OR), 11 (June 1903), 33132. Little (1903) quoted in Johnston, Radical Middle Cla.s.s, 358, n. 8. William J. Mayo, "The Medical Profession and the Issues Which Confront It," SCI, new ser. 23 (Jun. 15, 1906), 900.

77 "Anti-Vaccination Crusade," Pacific Medical Journal, 47 (Sept. 1904), 535. "Bitter Fights Against Law," SFC, Aug. 12, 1904, 4. "Question of Compulsory Vaccination," ibid., Oct. 16, 1904, 7. Governor George C. Pardee's veto message, Mar. 8, 1905, in The Journal of the Senate During the Twenty-Sixth Session of the Legislature of the State of California, 1905 (Sacramento, 1905), 1445. "Vetoes Anti-Vaccination Bill," Los Angeles Herald, Mar. 9, 1905, 2. "May Open a Private School to Evade Law," SFC, Jul. 18, 1905, 6.

78 Little quoted in Johnston, Radical Middle Cla.s.s, 201.

79 Albert et al., "Last Smallpox Epidemic," 375.

80 "Dies of Disease He Defied," NYT, Jul. 26, 1902, 5. "Anti-Vaccinationist Offered Up," Medical Sentinel, 11 (June 1903), 332. "Topics of the Times," NYT, Aug. 13, 1904, 6. "Smallpox in Zion City," ibid., Aug. 12, 1904, 7.

81 "Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox," BG, Feb. 9, 1902, 1."Pfeiffer Yet Alive," ibid., Feb. 10, 1902, 1.

82 "Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox." "Pfeiffer Yet Alive," BG, Feb. 10, 1902, 1. Nichols, Vaccination: A Blunder in Poisons, 51. See also "Dr. Pfeiffer's Condition Encouraging," BG, Feb. 11, 1902, 3; Albert et al., "Last Smallpox Epidemic," 377.

83 "Bedford May Sue," BG, Feb. 17, 1902, 1.

EIGHT: SPEAKING LAW TO POWER.