Pox: An American History Part 7

78 Woodward memorandum dated April 24, 1902, in U.S. Doc. 4407, 57th Congress, 1st Session, H.R. Reports, Vol. 9, No. 2713, "Sale of Viruses, Etc., in the District of Columbia," June 27, 1902, 4. "Cost of Street Cleaning," WP, Apr. 5, 1902, 11. "Regulates Sale of Virus," WP, May 3, 1902, 14.

79 Kober memorandum dated April 16, 1902, in H. R., "Sale of Viruses, Etc., in the District of Columbia," 4. See also U.S. Doc 4264, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Reports, vol. 9, no. 1980, "Sale of Viruses, Etc., in the District of Columbia, June 19, 1902. "Virus Sale Licenses," WP, Apr. 22, 1902, 12.

80 Walsh to Dr. Joseph McFarland, Dec. 4, 1901, quoted in Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry, 85. "Cleveland Experiment," 581. See also, in reference to a memorial from the Cleveland Academy of Medicine calling for U.S. government control of vaccine production, "American Medical a.s.sociation," New York State Journal of Medicine, 2 (July 1902), 194.

81 Robert N. Willson, "Abstract of an a.n.a.lysis of Fifty-Two Cases of Teta.n.u.s Following Vaccinia: with Reference to the Source of Infection," Proceedings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society, vol. 23 (Philadelphia, 1902), 157, 162, 165.

82 Unt.i.tled item on McFarland's appointment, MN, Feb. 9, 1901, 225. The significant changes were matters primarily of tone, as McFarland more resolutely stated his argument that a single make of vaccine, corrupted with teta.n.u.s, had caused the outbreaks at Camden and elsewhere.

83 Joseph McFarland, "Teta.n.u.s and Vaccination-An a.n.a.lytical Study of Ninety-Five Cases of This Rare Complication," Proceedings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society, vol. 23 (Philadelphia, 1902) [hereafter McFarland, Proceedings], 166, 171. Joseph McFarland, "Teta.n.u.s and Vaccination: An a.n.a.lytical Study of 95 Cases of the Complication," Lancet, Sept. 13, 1902 [hereafter McFarland, Lancet], 730.

84 McFarland, Proceedings, 168, 169. See, for example: "Death Follows Vaccination," NOP, Dec. 15, 1893, 4; "Vaccination, Lockjaw, and Death," NYT, May 29, 1894, 2. McFarland also implied that attempts were made to "suppress" cases "at the present time," and perhaps also in the past. McFarland, Proceedings, 168.

85 McFarland, Proceedings, 169.

86 McFarland also considered, and rejected, the (plausible) argument that the recent introduction of shields, to cover vaccination wounds, had contributed to the occurrence of teta.n.u.s. The argument was that the shields created just the sort of anaerobic environment where teta.n.u.s bacilli thrived. But McFarland pointed out that in very few of the reported cases had shields even been used. McFarland, Proceedings, 171.

87 McFarland, Proceedings, 173, 174. McFarland, Lancet, 733.

88 McFarland, Proceedings, 174, 175.

89 USROSENAU, 67. See also John H. Huddleston, "Teta.n.u.s and Vaccine Virus," Pediatrics, 16 (Feb. 1904), 6571.

90 William Osler, The Principles and Practice of Medicine, 4th ed. (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1901), 231. McFarland, Proceedings, 177. Today, the Centers for Disease Control places the normal incubation period at "3 to 21 days, usually about eight days," adding: "In general the further the site is from the central nervous system, the longer incubation period. The shorter the incubation period, the higher the chance of death." (Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 10th ed. (2008), 72. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/teta.n.u.s-508.pdf, accessed February 23, 2009.) 91 "Virus, Ant.i.toxins, and Serums," NYT, Apr. 14, 1902, 8. The Congressional Record doc.u.ments no debate on the legislation. JCSP, General Correspondence, Boxes 5154.

92 Public Law No. 244, "An act to regulate the sale of viruses, serums, toxins, and a.n.a.logous products in the District of Columbia, to regulate interstate traffic in said articles, and for other purposes," 32 Stat. L., 728, approved July 1, 1902.

93 Kondratas, "Biologics Control Act," 17.

94 Kondratas, "Biologics Control Act," 1819. John Parascandola, "The Public Health Service and the Control of Biologics," PHR, 110 (Nov. /Dec. 1995), 77475. Milstein, "Strengthening the Science Base," 176.

95 "The Best Vaccine," BG, Jun. 15, 1903, 6. Barbara Gutman Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Ma.s.sachusetts, 18421936 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 12327. "The Bacteriologic Laboratory," CMJ, 2 (Jan. 1903), 3738.

96 Kondratas, "Biologics Control Act," 1920. Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry.

97 Pure Food and Drug Act, 1906, approved June 30, 1906, 34 U.S. Stats. 768.

98 "Statement of Dr. C. T. Sowers, of Washington, D.C.," Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives on Bills Relating to Health Activities of the General Government, Part I (Washington, 1910), 38586.

99 "Smallpox in New Jersey," PMJ, 9 (Jan. 11, 1902), 50. "Smallpox in Camden," ibid., 9 (Mar 1, 1902), 466.

SIX: THE POLITICS OF TIGHT s.p.a.cES.

1 "Doctors Make a Raid: Many Persons in Little Italy Are Forcibly Vaccinated," NYT, Feb. 2, 1901,1, 10. None of the Caballo family members, nor Antoinette Alvena, appeared in the 1900 or 1910 census. I was unable to find any further information about them.

2 "Doctors Make a Raid." See also "Smallpox in Little Italy," NYT, Jan. 31, 1901, 2. "The Weather," ibid., Feb. 2, 1901, 3.

3 Blauvelt in "Smallpox Scare Is Unwarranted," NYT, Dec. 29, 1900, 8. See also "New York Library's Record," ibid., Jan. 9, 1901, 8; "Smallpox Scare's Hardships," ibid., Dec. 29, 1900, 8; "Over a Thousand Vaccinated," ibid., Jan. 18, 1901, 2; and "Smallpox Rumors Hurt Trade," NYTRIB, Jan. 8, 1901, 2.

4 Blauvelt in "Army of Vaccinators," NYT, Dec. 25, 1900, 4.

5 On the social and cultural history of Italian Harlem, see Robert A. Orsi, The Madonna of 115th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, 18801950, 2d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).

6 "War on Disease Germs," NYT, Jul. 7, 1900, 5. Jacob August Riis, The Children of the Poor (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902), 24. John Duffy, The Sanitarians, 207.

7 Dillingham quoted in "Small-Pox, Hid, Now Breaks Out," NYEW, Jan. 31, 1901, 3. "Smallpox in 'Little Italy,'" NYTRIB, Feb. 1, 1901, 3. "Smallpox in Little Italy," NYT, Jan. 31, 1901, 2. "Doctors Make a Raid."

8 "Doctors Make a Raid."

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid. Orsi, Madonna, esp. 2124, 35.

11 "Doctors Make a Raid."

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid.

14 United States Const.i.tution, Article II, Section 1. For a concise overview of Italian immigration during this period, see Rudolph J. Vecoli, "The Italian Diaspora, 18761976," in The Cambridge History of World Migration, ed. Robin Cohen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 11422.

15 U.S. Treasury Department, Immigration Laws and Regulations (Washington, 1900), esp. 12. U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration, Immigration Laws and Regulations (Washington, 1904). Walter T. K. Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 18701914, reprint ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 2733.

16 William Pencak, "General Introduction," in Immigration to New York, ed. William Pencak et al. (Philadelphia: Balch Inst.i.tute Press, 1991), xiii. Mary Elizabeth Brown, " '. . . The Adoption of the Tactics of the Enemy': The Care of Italian Immigrant Youth in the Archdiocese of New York During the Progressive Era," in ibid., 10910. Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers, esp. 5152.

17 Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Age of t.i.tans: The Progressive Era and World War I (New York: NYU Press, 1988), 15557. See also William J. Rorabaugh et al., America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004), 400. Nugent, Crossings, 3133. On steerage journeys from Asia to San Francisco, see Robert Eric Barde, Immigration at the Golden Gate: Pa.s.senger Ships, Exclusion, and Angel Island (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008).

18 Journalist quoted in Nancy Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK: New York's Two Great Waves of Immigration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 31; ibid., 2932.

19 "Carriers by Water-Their Relations with Pa.s.sengers," CLJ, 52 (Jan. 25, 1901), 66. U.S. Treasury Department, Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, Handbook for the Ship's Medicine Chest, by George W. Stoner, 2d ed. (Washington, 1904), 24. "U.S. Quarantine Laws and Regulations," in USSGPHMHS 1894, 242. 29th U.S. Congress, 1st Session, H.R. Doc. No. 182, "Surgeons on Packet Ships," Apr. 6, 1846, 2. See "Smallpox at Sea" [from London Times], NYT, Aug. 4, 1891; "Pestship in the Offing," ibid., Aug. 29, 1896, 9.

20 Excerpt from Annual Report of the Commissioners of Immigration, State of New York (1868), in Immigration: Select Doc.u.ments and Case Records, ed. Edith Abbott (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924), 44, 45, 46. For an earlier (1845) call for a law requiring surgeons aboard immigrant ships, see "Surgeons on Packet Ships," 3.

21 Congressional debate on "A Bill to Regulate the Carriage of Pa.s.sengers by Sea," in Abbott, ed., Immigration, 54, 53. 47th Congress, 1st Session, H.R. Doc. No. 118, "Introduction of Contagious and Infectious Diseases into the United States," Mar. 13, 1882, 2. "Vaccinating Immigrants: A New Move by the National Board of Health," WP, Aug. 31, 1881, 4. On the 1878 law, see U.S. Department of State, Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries (Washington, 1887), vol. 2: 18651866.

22 "Report of the Health-Officer of the Port of New York," SCI, 13 (Apr. 19, 1889), 304. "Vaccination of Immigrants," MR, Nov. 11, 1882, 550.

23 F. Scrimshaw to William Tebb, May 7, 1883, in William Tebb, Compulsory Vaccination in England: With Incidental References to Foreign States (London: E. W. Allen, 1884), 48. On New York, see "An Act for the Protection of the Public Health," in Department of State, Commercial Relations of the United States, vol. 2: 192930. On Boston, see O'Brien v. Cunard Steamship Company, 154 MA 272 (1891). California had long had such a policy for San Francisco, but it only applied to ships with smallpox aboard or ships arriving from an infected port. See "Health and Quarantine Regulations for the City and Harbor of San Francisco," CALBOH 189092, 19298.

24 See Jimmy Casas Klausen, "Room Enough: America, Natural Liberty, and Consent in Locke's Second Treatise," Journal of Politics, 69 (2007), 76069.

25 O'Brien v. Cunard Steamship Company, 154 MA 272 (1891). This accounts draws upon the records from the case-including the plaintiff 's list of exceptions and the briefs from both sides-in Ma.s.sachusetts Reports, Papers and Briefs, SLL.

26 O'Brien v. Cunard Steamship Company, 154 MA 272 (1891).

27 O'Brien also claimed that the vaccination had been negligently performed, causing an eruption of blisters over her body. The Supreme Judicial Court absolved the Cunard Steamship Company from any responsibility, insisting that under the federal law steamship companies had done all that was required when they provided a competent medical pract.i.tioner; "[t] he work the physician or surgeon does in such cases is under the control of the pa.s.sengers themselves." O'Brien v. Cunard Steamship Company, 154 MA 272, 276 (1891).

28 "The United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service," JAMA, 43 (1904): 80911.

29 "United States Quarantine Laws and Regulations," USSGPHMHS 1894, 252, 247, 24041.

30 Alan M. Kraut, "Plagues and Prejudice: Nativism's Construction of Disease in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century New York City," in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 6590, esp. 69.

31 "Smallpox on Cunard Liner," NYT, June 19, 1900, 7. This practice continued for years. See "Vaccinate 1,045 Immigrants," ibid., Oct. 25, 1909, 4. See Samuel W. Abbott, "Vaccination," in A Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, vol. 8: 147.

32 Amy L. Fairchild, Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 125.

33 Alfred C. Reed, "Going Through Ellis Island," PSM, Jan. 1913, 518. Kraut, "Plagues and Prejudice," 69. Nancy Foner, et al., eds., Immigration Research for a New Century: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 9699.

34 USSGPHMHS 1903, 20. Kraut, "Plagues and Prejudice," 69, 70. Kraut, Silent Travelers, 55.

35 PHR, 14 (Feb. 24, 1899), 240, 241.

36 PHR, 14 (Mar. 3, 1899), 281. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 24, 1899), 390. Ibid., 14 (Feb. 24, 1899), 242. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 10, 1899), 311. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 31, 1899), 423. See Carlos E. Cuellar, "Laredo Smallpox Riot," Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/jcl1.html (accessed April 15, 2009). See also John McKiernan, "Fevered Measures: Race, Communicable Disease, and Community Formation in the Texas-Mexico Border" (PhD diss, University of Michigan, 2002). Howard Markel and Alexandra Minna Stern, "The Foreignness of Germs: The Persistent a.s.sociation of Immigrants and Disease in American Society," Milbank Quarterly, 80 (2002), 765.

37 "Copy of letter addressed on October 2 [1905] by the vice-consul of France, at Colon, to the secretary of foreign affairs, Paris (American section)," in 59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. No. 127, Part 2: Isthmian Ca.n.a.l. Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting Certain Papers to Accompany His Message of January 8, 1906 ( Washington, 1906), 60. "Clubbed by Police," WP, Oct. 2, 1905, 1. "No Vaccine for Them They Said," El aguila de Puerto-Rico, Oct. 3, 1905, 1. See also "Club Ca.n.a.l Workmen to Force Them to Land," NYT, Oct. 2, 1905, 1; "Laborers Who Leaped Overboard Safe," ibid., Oct. 3, 1905, 6. Leon Pepperman, Who Built the Panama Ca.n.a.l? (New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1915), 27374. See generally Julie Greene, The Ca.n.a.l Builders: Making America's Empire at the Panama Ca.n.a.l (New York: The Penguin Press, 2009), 3943.

38 Gustave Anguizola, "Negroes in the Building of the Panama Ca.n.a.l," Phylon, 29 (1968), 35159, esp. 355. See James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and idem, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

39 James Nevins Hyde, "The Late Epidemic of Smallpox in the United States," PSM, 59 (Oct. 1901), 567. "School Vaccinations," American Medicine, precis in MR, Oct. 4, 1902, 547.

40 Dutch Doctor Barnes, "How to Produce a Scar Resembling Vaccination," Medical Talk, 5 ( 1904), 308. This article was reprinted numerous times in journals sympathetic or dedicated to the cause of antivaccinationism, including The Liberator. "How to Produce a Scar Resembling Vaccination," The Liberator, March 1908, reprinted in A Stuffed Club: A Journal of Rational Therapeutics, Part I, ed. John H. Tilden, orig. 1908, reprinted (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2003), 56. FBOH 1904, 69. See Nadav Davidovitch, "Negotiating Dissent: Homeopathy and Anti-Vaccinationism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century," in The Politics of Healing, ed. Robert D. Johnston, 2425.

41 Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 57380, esp. 579. Abbott, "Vaccination," 120, 126.

42 Freund, Police Power, 109, 116.

43 Edwin Grant Dexter, A History of Education in the United States (New York: The Macmillan Company 1904), appendices. Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 57578.

44 Hunter Boyd in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction at the Thirtieth Annual Session Held in the City of Atlanta, May 612, 1903 (1903), 110. George M. Kober, "The Progress and Tendency of Hygiene and Sanitary Science in the Nineteenth Century," JAMA, Jun. 8, 1901, 1624. "Medical Inspection in the Schools," NYT, Sept. 27, 1903, 6. See Judith Sealander, The Failed Century of the Child: Governing America's Young in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); and David Tyack, "Health and Social Services in Public Schools: Historical Perspectives," The Future of Children, 2 (Spring 1992), 1931.

45 "Vaccination Certificate Frauds," NYT, May 9, 1904, 8. "Vaccination," CT, reprinted in NYT, Jun. 24, 1900, 20. "Led Scarless Kids to School," AC, Dec. 5, 1902, 2.

46 Martin Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland of Smallpox," CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902), 78. See also "Compulsory Vaccination Upheld," NYT, Sept. 1, 1901, 8; "Vaccination Stirs Revolt," ibid., Feb. 5, 1906, 1; "Teacher Must Be Vaccinated," ibid., Nov. 15, 1901, 7. "Teachers Opposed Vaccination Census," PMJ, 9 (Mar. 8, 1902), 42.

47 "New Jersey Smallpox Panic," NYT, Dec. 8, 1901, 8. "Smallpox Scare's Hardships," ibid., Dec. 29, 1900, 8. "Smallpox in the State," PMJ, 9 (Feb. 1, 1902), 195.

48 On labor law during this period, see generally, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

49 "Over a Thousand Vaccinated," NYT, Jan. 18, 1901, 2. On railroads' liability, see "Agency-Notice to Agent Is Notice to Princ.i.p.al-Liability of Carrier," in "Recent Decisions," Columbia Law Review , 7 (May 1907), 360. For examples of compulsion, see (re: United Traction Company of Albany, New York) "To Vaccinate 500 Street Railway Men," NYT, Jan. 17, 1901, 5; and (re: Pennsylvania RR Corp.), "Vaccination," NYT, Dec. 18, 1903, 8. "Orders 300,000 Vaccinated," CT, Feb. 14, 1903. On the Frick Company, see American Iron and Steel Inst.i.tute, Directory to the Iron and Steel Works of the United States (Philadelphia, 1904), 7273.

50 "Factory Girls' Resistance," NYT, Apr. 12, 1901, 3.

51 Martin Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland of Smallpox," CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902): 7778. "Smallpox at Stockport," NYT, June 16, 1900, 10.

52 "Miners Resist Vaccination," NYT, Apr. 25, 1902, 1.

53 "Wage War on Smallpox," CT, Feb. 4, 1902, 2. "Smallpox in Chicago," PMJ, 9 (Feb. 22, 1902), 344. "Roads to Fight Smallpox," NYT, Feb. 14, 1902, 2.

54 MBOH 18991901, 34. "Compulsory Vaccination for Rhode Island," PMJ, 9 (Mar 1902), 386. "In Senate," Chicago Medical Recorder, 20 (June 1901): 604.

55 JAMA, Jun. 15, 1901, 1712. Journal of Proceedings of the Forty-Fifth Session of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1901 (Madison, WI, 1901), 926. "Compulsory Vaccination," Wasatch Wave (Utah), Feb. 1, 1901. General Laws of the State of Minnesota, Pa.s.sed During the Thirty-Third Session of the State Legislature (St. Paul, 1903), ch. 299, 530.

56 "Topics of the Times," NYT, Jan. 19, 1901, 8. James Colgrove, "Between Persuasion and Compulsion: Smallpox Control in Brooklyn and New York, 18941902," BHM, 78 (2004), 372. "Compulsory Vaccination," PMJ, 9, Mar. 15, 1902, 466. "Smallpox in Hospitals," NYT, Mar. 14, 1902, 2.

57 NYCBOH 1901, 12.

58 NYCBOH 1902, 18. Ernest J. Lederle, "Munic.i.p.al Suppression of Infection and Contagion," North American Review, 174 (June 1902), 76977.

59 NYCBOH 1902, 8, 92. "Physician Badly Scares Trolley Car Pa.s.sengers," NYT, Mar. 28, 1902, 1. "Smallpox Panic in Harlem," NYT, Apr. 28, 1902, 2.

60 "Smallpox Patient Taken from Tenement," NYT, Nov. 23, 1902, 19.

61 NYCBOH 1903, 89, 62, 238.

62 "Keeping the Health of a City," Scientific American, 89 (Oct. 10, 1903), 254.

63 "Fusion Campaign Cards," NYT, Oct. 9, 1903, 2. See also "Citizens' Union Campaign," ibid., Sept. 21, 1903, 2; and "Mayor Low's Superb Administration," ibid., Oct. 12, 1903, 1. "Dr. E. J. Lederle Dies in Sanitarium," ibid., Mar. 15, 1921, 11.

64 "Compulsory Vaccination," CT, Mar. 13, 1899, 6; "Wages War on Smallpox," ibid., Jan. 28, 1900, 34. "The Cambridge Smallpox Epidemic," MN, June 28, 1902, 1230. "Virus Squad Out," BG, Nov. 18, 1901, 7. BOSHD 1901, 45.

65 Carl Lorenz, Tom L. Johnson: Mayor of Cleveland (New York: A. S. Barnes Company, 1911), 5758. Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland," 78.

66 Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland," 88. Annual Report of the Public Health Division, Department of Police, of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31st, 1901 (Cleveland, 1902), 5, 16.

67 Belt quoted in Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland," 87. Ibid., 89. "Editorial: Smallpox, Vaccination and Disinfection," CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902), 11920. "How Cleveland Stamped Out Smallpox Without Vaccination," PMJ, 10 (Oct. 11, 1902), 486. For examples of antivaccinationists' praising Friedrich's disinfection campaign, see B. O. Flower, "How Cleveland Stamped Out Smallpox," Arena, 27 (Apr. 1902), 42629; C. F. Nichols, Vaccination: A Blunder in Poisons, 2d ed. (Boston: Blackwell and Churchill Press, 1902), 2228.

68 Friedrich in Annual Report of the Department of Public Health of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31st, 1903 (Cleveland, 1904), 93742, esp. 937. "Vaccination Is the Only Remedy," Cleveland Plain Dealer, Jun. 20, 1902. Annual Report of the Department of Police, Public Health Division of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31, 1902 (Cleveland, 1903), 20. "Vaccinate!" CMJ, 1 (May 1902): 27980. "The Smallpox Situation," ibid., 1 (July 1902): 383. "How Cleveland Was Rid of Smallpox?" ibid., 1 ( 1902): 47073. "Smallpox Decreasing," ibid., 1 (Dec. 1902): 568. "Vaccination in Cleveland," ibid., 1 (Dec. 1902): 57172. "The Smallpox Situation in Ohio," ibid., 2 (Feb. 1903): 9697.

69 "Smallpox in the State," PMJ, 9 (Jan. 25, 1902), 155.

70 On Roseto, see Stewart Wolf and John G. Bruhn, The Power of Clan: The Influence of Human Relationships on Heart Disease (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998), esp. 1324.

71 Leroy Parker and Robert H. Worthington, The Law of Public Health and Safety, and the Powers and Duties of Boards of Health (Albany, NY: Matthew Bender, 1892), 131. See "Many Tricks of the Ignorant Poor to Hide Contagious Diseases from the Health Board," NYTRIB, Aug. 2, 1903, 3. See also "Girl Hid from Vaccinators," NYT, Mar. 14, 1901, 3; "Smallpox Nest in Brooklyn," ibid., Mar. 20, 1901, 2; "Defies the Health Board," ibid., Jul. 14, 1901, 3.

72 Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 6078.

73 "New Orleans Pesthouse," NYT, Apr. 1, 1900, 2. "Lay All Blame on Pest House," Salt Lake Herald, Jun. 2, 1903, 2. "At North Brother Island," NYT, Jun. 16, 1901, 20. "Wrong Body Sent Home," ibid., Nov. 25, 1901, 11.

74 Kirk v. Board of Health, 83 S.C. 372 (1909), 374, 384, 383. Samuel W. Abbott, "Legislation with Reference to Small-Pox and Vaccination," MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 155.