Our National Forests Part 12

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp.

These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author.]

_Timber Sale Contract Clauses._ The sale contract contains in full all the conditions under which the cutting is to be done. In all sales of National Forest stumpage the contract provides that no timber shall be cut until it has been paid for, and that it shall not be removed until it has been scaled by a Forest officer. All live timber is marked or otherwise designated before cutting, and any merchantable timber used for logging improvements, such as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must be scaled and paid for. In order to secure full utilization of the timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily fixed at 18 inches, and merchantable timber must be used to a specified diameter in the tops, which is adjusted for each species in accordance with local manufacturing and market conditions. The officer in charge of the sale is authorized to vary the stump height and top diameter in individual cases when those specified in the contract are not practicable. The tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush must be piled and burned, or burned without piling under the direction of Forest officers.

Merchantable timber which is not cut and removed and unmarked trees which are cut must be paid for at double the specified stumpage rates.

This extra charge serves as a penalty.

All camps, buildings, railroads, and other improvements necessary in logging and manufacturing the timber may be constructed upon National Forest land without charge. Railroads which open up inaccessible regions may be required to be made common carriers or to transport logs and lumber for other purchasers or for the Government at reasonable rates.

Since fire protection is one of the most important duties of the Forest Service, provision is made in all contracts that the purchaser must place himself and employees, as well as the employees of his contractors, at the disposal of authorized Forest officers for fighting fires. Reimburs.e.m.e.nt is made for such services at the wages in vogue for fighting fires on the National Forest in question, unless the fire threatens the timber of the purchaser or property of the operator, or is started in connection with the operation. Under these conditions the purchaser is expected to furnish his available employees to a.s.sist the Government in fire fighting without charge. Efficient spark arresters are required on wood and coal burning boilers or locomotives.

Inflammable material must be cleaned up in the vicinity of logging engines, and other precautions taken to insure against fire spreading from this source. Snags and diseased trees upon the sale area must usually be felled, whether merchantable or not, in order to remove fire menace and to check the spread of timber infestations and pests.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnaissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on "Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 60. A winter reconnaissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. La.s.sen National Forest, California. Photo by the author.]

_Special Contract Clauses._ Special clauses are inserted in contracts to meet peculiar and unusual conditions. These deal with the number of men the company is to furnish for brush burning; the time of the year this work is to be done; the construction of fire lines; the manner of scaling timber; the manner of piling and the location of piles of material to be scaled; the definition of a merchantable log; the utilization of tops; the manner or method of logging to be used; the location of improvements; the use of timber for the construction of improvements; the disposal of improvements at the termination of the contract; where cutting is to begin and how fast it is to proceed; the percentage of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; and other special clauses recommended by the Bureau of Entomology for the sale of insect infested timber.

That the Forest Service timber sale policy and the various timber sale clauses have met with the approval of the lumbermen and the timber buyers of the Western States is attested by the fact that in the last ten years (from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1917) there have been nearly 75,000 purchasers of National Forest timber and that between these two dates the annual number of timber sales has increased from 5,062 in the fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 in the fiscal year 1917. No better evidence could be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have in the Forest Service method of doing business.

_When the Operation May Begin._ As soon as the contract has been executed and the first payment has been made a portion of the timber is marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin operations at once.

Sometimes cutting in advance of the execution of the contract is allowed to prevent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and expense on the part of the purchaser.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County, California]

_Marking the Timber for Cutting._ In order to insure a proper restocking of the ground, all live trees must be marked or otherwise designated by a Forest officer before cutting can commence. Usually from 1/10 to 1/3 of the stand is reserved, either scattered over the entire tract or distributed in groups. These trees are left for various reasons, depending upon circ.u.mstances. The most important consideration is, of course, to leave enough seed trees to restock the cut-over area. On steep slopes a certain number of trees must be left to protect the watershed and to prevent the erosion of the soil. Many species of trees are subject to windthrow when the stand is thinned out. To counteract this tendency a sufficient number of trees must be left to prevent the wind from getting an un.o.bstructed sweep. In many semi-arid portions of the West additional trees must be left standing to protect the forest from excessive drying and to prevent the ground from being occupied by useless tree weeds and brush. Often, especially along highways, trees are left for their scenic effect. From an economic standpoint it is important sometimes to leave trees in order to make a second cut worth while.

Where only dead timber is purchased, and no living trees are cut, or where patches of forest are to be cut clean, Forest officers, instead of marking every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a boundary of the cutting area or patch and instruct the purchaser accordingly. Where individual trees are marked they are blazed and stamped "U. S." next to the ground on the lowest side of the stump. Additional blazes may be made several feet above the ground whenever desired by the purchaser for the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow may conceal the lower mark from the "fallers." Where both kinds of blazes are used, one man, in fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 1,000 trees in a day. Under no condition may unmarked or undesignated trees be cut by the purchaser.

The system of marking and the proportion of the timber to be cut is explained to purchasers by marking sample areas before the contract is executed. The cost of logging under the methods of marking adopted is compensated fully in the stumpage appraisal.

_Scaling, Measuring, and Stamping._ Unless timber is sold by estimate, it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. In addition it must be stamped by a Forest officer with a regulation marking ax or similar instrument. Payment is made upon the actual scale, count or measure, with due allowance for defect.

All National Forest timber is sold under specifications which are in accordance with those in commercial use, such as logs by the thousand board feet, ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, shingle bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by the linear foot. All logs are scaled at the small end.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo by the author.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California.

These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. Photo by the author.]

All saw timber is scaled by the Scribner Decimal C log rule. In order to permit scaling at reasonable cost to the Forest Service, purchasers may be required, where the cost of logging may not be unduly increased, to skid and pile the logs for scaling. Piles and skidways must be constructed so as to permit economical scaling and when necessary and practicable the purchaser is required to mark the small ends of the logs to avoid misunderstanding when they are scaled on the pile.

Logs or other material that has been scaled or measured are designated by a "US" stamp impressed in the wood so that the material may not be scaled again by mistake. Each merchantable log scaled is stamped on at least one end and unmerchantable or defective logs are stamped "US" in a circle. Material other than saw logs, such as mine timber, ties, posts, poles, or piling, after scaling, is stamped on at least one end. Cord wood is stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick.

On all National Forests except those in Alaska and west of the summit of the Cascades in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled as two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of not less than 12 feet. In Alaska and parts of Oregon and Washington logs up to and including 32 feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 32 to 64 feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as nearly equal in length as possible in even feet. All diameters are measured inside the bark at the top end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the nearest inch above or below the actual diameter.

In the case of logs each one is numbered and the number entered in a scale book with the corresponding board foot scale of the log. In the case of ties, posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skidway is numbered and the count or scale entered opposite the corresponding number in the scale book.

_Disposal of Slash._ One of the most important features in National Forest timber sales is the disposal of the brush or slash after logging.

On account of the great diversity of conditions which obtain on the Forests, the best way to dispose of brush is not everywhere the same.

Piling and burning is required where the fire risk is great; otherwise the method promising the best silvicultural results is used.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars.

Photo by the author.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author.]

When piling and burning is necessary, all tops and debris, including large chips made from hewing ties, are piled at a safe distance from standing trees. The piles are not allowed to be made in groups of seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near living trees, or on stumps, large tops or logs, but wherever possible in openings. The piles are adapted to the size of the opening in which they are made and must be made sufficiently compact to kindle easily and burn cleanly. The ideal pile is of medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7 feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high. Brush piling and burning is an art which can only be acquired after long experience.

Brush is scattered whenever this method promises the best silvicultural results, unless there is serious danger from fire on account of dense timber and reproduction. The scattered brush is intended to afford protection to seedlings from excessive transpiration and from trampling by stock and to protect the soil from erosion.

Ground burning may be advisable where clean cutting has been employed, to expose the loose mineral soil for better seed germination. When this method is used the purchaser is required to clear a fire line around the area to be burned and to furnish adequate help to the Forest officer who supervises the burning.

Frequently brush is burned as the cutting progresses. Fires are started at convenient points and the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped.

Where brush burning is necessary it is not advisable, ordinarily, to burn over an entire sale area. It is frequently possible to burn the brush so as to form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads or wagon roads. The best times for brush burning are after a light fall of snow or rain, early in the spring before the snow has melted or the dry season has begun or during or immediately after summer rains. Brush disposal must always keep pace with logging except when the depth of snow or other reasons make proper disposal impossible. Often the brush must lay in piles at least one season before it becomes dry enough to burn.

_Payment for Timber._ Payment must be made for all timber in advance of cutting. This, however, does not imply that one advance payment must be made to cover the stumpage value of all the timber included in the sale.

Frequent installments are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of one or two months.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino National Forest, Arizona.]

This arrangement makes it possible to secure large tracts of National Forest timber at a very slight initial outlay and to hold them with almost no interest charges. The other usual carrying charges, namely, taxes and fire protection, are eliminated. The timber is protected from fire by the United States throughout the life of the contract. The money deposited to secure cutting in advance of the execution of the contract may be credited towards the amount to accompany the bid.

_Stumpage Rates._ The minimum stumpage rates applicable in each proposed sale are determined by a careful study of the conditions in the particular case. Stumpage rates are the actual market value of the timber. They are based upon the quality of the timber and the character of its commercial products; the estimated cost of logging, transportation, and manufacture; the investment required on the part of the operator; the selling value of the product; and a fair profit to the purchaser. The estimated profit depends upon the size and the permanency of the operation and the degree of risk involved. The cost of brush disposal, protection of young growth, logging only marked timber and other requirements of the Forest Service is fully considered in appraising stumpage rates.

Timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indicated for the most valuable products to which it is suited and for which an established market exists. Merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same rate as green timber of the same species unless it is clearly shown that the products manufactured from it command a lower market price or that logging costs are higher.

_Cutting Period._ Ordinarily the cutting period allowed in each sale is only sufficient to permit the removal of the timber at a reasonable rate, approximately equivalent to the working capacity of the plant.

Sales of accessible timber usually do not exceed 5 years in length.

However, in the case of inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment for transportation facilities an exception is made and periods of from 15 to 20 years may be granted.

_Readjustment of Stumpage Rates._ In all sales exceeding 5 years in length provision is made to have the stumpage rates readjusted by the Forester at the end of three or five year intervals to meet changing market and manufacturing conditions.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 68. An excellent ill.u.s.tration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practised by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practised by the Forest Service. In the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana.]

_Refunds._ Deposits to cover or secure advance cutting or to accompany bids apply on the first payment if a sale is awarded to the depositor; otherwise they will be refunded. Refunds are also made to the purchaser if the last payment is in excess of the value of the timber that is cut.

THE DISPOSAL OF TIMBER TO HOMESTEAD SETTLERS AND UNDER FREE USE

Besides selling the timber and other forest products outright, as has just been described, some timber is sold to settlers at cost and much timber is given away to the local people under the free use policy.

_Sales to Homestead Settlers and Farmers._ Sales to homestead settlers and farmers are made without advertis.e.m.e.nt in any amount desired, at the price fixed annually for each National Forest region of similar conditions by the Secretary, as equivalent to the actual cost of making and administering such sales. Only material to be used by the purchaser for domestic purposes exclusively on homesteads or farms is sold in this way. Such uses include the construction or repair of farm buildings, fences, and other improvements and fuel. Such sales are restricted to mature dead and down timber which may be cut without injury to the forest.

_Free Use._ Free use of timber is granted primarily to aid in the protection and silvicultural improvement of the Forests. Hence the material taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead, insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. Green material may be taken in exceptional cases where its refusal would clearly cause unwarranted hardship. The use of such material is granted freely: (1) To bona fide settlers, miners, residents, prospectors, for fire wood, fencing, building, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes; and to any one in case its removal is necessary for the welfare of the Forest; (2) for the construction of telephone lines when necessary for the protection of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches of the Federal Government. Free use is not granted for commercial purposes or of use in any business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, companies or corporations. Such persons are required to purchase their timber.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of piling the brush and debris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico.]