Our National Forests Part 11

It is impossible to grow a sound and thrifty forest for future generations if there are unhealthful conditions in the forest that are a constant menace to the trees. The first step in this hygienic work is close observation on the part of the Forest officers. The next important step is to prevent the infection and infestation of sound trees by getting rid of all diseased and insect-infested living and dying trees. By means of timber sales and free use, Forest officers very materially help in establishing healthy conditions on the National Forests. There is a clause in most timber sale contracts which requires the cutting by the purchaser of all snags and other unhealthy trees on the area. This measure not only eliminates undesirable trees from a hygienic standpoint, but it also makes it possible to utilize the merchantable timber left in undesirable trees, which would otherwise go to waste. On timber sales, Forest officers who do the marking leave for reproduction only such trees as are perfectly sound and healthy.

Mistletoe infested trees, especially, are marked for cutting, for neither in plant nor in animal life can healthy offspring be expected to develop under unhealthful conditions.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one result of denuding the Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been especially serious in the Appalachian Mountains. View taken in Madison County, North Carolina.]

_Water Supply._ Undoubtedly the greatest value of the mountain forests of the West, most of which are within the National Forests, lies in their influence upon the regularity of the water supply. In many States these mountains afford the only water supply for domestic use, for irrigation, and for the development of power. The future development of the entire region depends, therefore, upon a regular water supply.

It is not so much the amount of water as the manner in which it flows from the mountains that is important. To insure this regularity, the vegetative covering is an important factor. For this reason, Congress made the preservation of conditions favorable to stream flow one of the princ.i.p.al objects in the establishment and administration of the National Forests.

Many of my readers who have lived out-of-doors a great deal have learned by common observation the simple problem of how the forest regulates stream flow. Any one who has been in a treeless region after a heavy rainstorm can recall how suddenly the streams swell and flood their banks, and how soon these same streams return to their former flow. On the other hand, a severe rainstorm in a forested region will hardly have an appreciable effect upon the streams. The difference is not very hard to explain. In a treeless region there are no natural obstacles which might delay or prevent the raindrops from reaching the ground. The soil is usually hard and dry, and the water runs off as though from a gable roof. In a forest, we well know, the crowns of the trees intercept most of the rain that falls; very little strikes the ground directly.

The rain that strikes the crown is dissipated on the leaves or needles, on the twigs and branches, and on the trunk. It must travel a long way before it reaches the ground, and all this delay helps in preventing a rapid run-off or flood. The soil in the forest is covered by a living ground cover of flowers, shrubs and young trees, and by a dead cover composed of leaves, twigs, dead branches, fallen trees, all of which interrupt the raindrop's journey to the ground. Even after the rain reaches the ground, only a small part of it goes off as surface run-off.

The soil in the forest is loose and full of holes and channels made by decaying roots, earth worms, etc., so that the water is absorbed as fast as it reaches the soil. Also the soil in the forest contains a large amount of organic matter, resulting from decaying leaves and branches, and this organic matter acts as a great sponge, because it is capable of holding several times its own weight of water. As a result of the living and dead ground cover, the crown cover, and the organic matter in the soil, the rainfall is fed to the streams gradually through weeks and months, instead of a few hours, and the nearby rivers have a steady, equable flow, instead of alternate stages of floods and low water.

Closely bound up with the protection of watersheds is the erosion problem. Without a forest cover, rain runs off mountain slopes very rapidly, often carrying with it silt and sand, and, in severe floods, even rocks and bowlders. A well known physical law states that the carrying capacity of a stream increases as the sixth power of its velocity. In other words, double the velocity of a stream and you have multiplied its carrying power by 64; increase its velocity ten times, and you multiply its carrying power by a million. The delay caused by the forest cover in each raindrop's journey down a mountain side not only prevents floods, but also preserves the fertility of the fields in the valleys below.

Many streams in the West carry such enormous amounts of silt that the storage capacity of reservoirs has been seriously impaired, even within a comparatively short time. Then, also, there is the added difficulty and expense of keeping the diversion works--the ditches and ca.n.a.ls--free from an excess of this material. Studies which have been carried on to determine in what way the administration of the National Forests can keep the destructive processes of erosion at a minimum have shown that the balance between the stability of the soil and rapid erosion on many slopes is so delicate that only a slight abuse may result in complete loss of the fertile top soil and permanent changes in the character of the vegetation.

In August, 1909, the town of Ephraim, on the Manti National Forest, Utah, experienced a disastrous flood from Ephraim canyon, which was attributed in part to the overgrazed condition on the watershed. An examination made the next spring clearly demonstrated that the severity of the flood was a direct result of deterioration of forest, brush, and gra.s.s cover, due to overgrazing during a long period of years.

The canyon was therefore closed to grazing as an immediate protective measure. Plans were thereafter made to restore the forest cover of the canyon by planting.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel, and debris brought down from the mountains by floods. These farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. This could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river.]

In this kind of protection work, as in the case of forest fires, it has been found that preventive measures are much more effective and much less costly than remedial measures. The regulations under which the Forests are administered give the Secretary of Agriculture power to inst.i.tute preventive measures. To insure the sufficiency and purity of the water supply of a munic.i.p.ality or of an irrigation district, or to prevent floods and snowslides, the use of watersheds for grazing, timber, special uses, or settlement is especially restricted when such restriction is found to be necessary. On steep gra.s.s or timber-covered mountain slopes both grazing and timber sales are prohibited, if necessary.

_Public Health._ From the relation which the National Forests bear to the streams that issue from them, it will be seen that they may exert a great influence upon the health and general welfare of the communities in the valleys below. All persons either permanently or temporarily camped upon National Forest land are liable to trespa.s.s proceedings if unsanitary conditions result from their presence. All camp refuse must be disposed of either by burying or burning. This regulation applies to hunting and fishing parties, as well as to large logging camps, sawmills, and construction camps on National Forest lands. Thus the regulations strictly guard against the pollution of the water supply of the people who live in the large towns and cities, and also those who live on the Forests or near them. The watersheds tributary to many of the large western cities and towns are under special protection by the Forest Service. Under this sanitary regulation, it is possible to maintain such control of them as will greatly reduce the danger of typhoid and other enteric diseases.

_Violation of Game Laws._ Wild game, fish and birds add materially to the enjoyment of the National Forests by the public, and their protection and preservation is a duty of Forest officers. Although this duty rests primarily with the State the Forest Service a.s.sists, as far as practicable, in the protection of game on the National Forests from illegal practices. Forest Service officials are at the same time State Game Wardens. In the event of a violation of the state game laws, they either apprehend the offender or report the matter to the proper state official.

Various kinds of game and bird refuges may be included within National Forests, depending upon whether they are created by specific acts of the State Legislature or by Acts of Congress. In these refuges, hunting, trapping, willfully disturbing, or killing any game or bird is prohibited. Whether the violation occurs in the state game refuge or the national refuge, the Forest officer has authority to arrest the offender without warrant.

CHAPTER IV

THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES

The timber, the pasture, the water and mineral resources and the land in the National Forests are for the use of the people, and they may be obtained for legitimate use from the local Forest officers without delay. In fact, the Forest Service is doing all it can to encourage all kinds of business which depends upon National Forest resources.

THE SALE AND DISPOSAL OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER

There has been a steady increase in the amount and value of the timber cut on the National Forests. During the fiscal year 1917 over 700,000,000 feet of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, while almost three times as much was sold. Most of this was cut in the States of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, Washington, California and Arizona.

All mature timber on the National Forests which may be cut with benefit and in accordance with certain well-established forestry principles, is for sale and is advertised and offered as demand arises. The outstanding feature of government timber sales is the fact that only the stumpage is sold, the t.i.tle of the land remaining with the Government. The timber is sold in any quant.i.ty, so long as the sale is in accordance with well-established policy. Large sales require a large initial investment for constructing a railroad or other means for taking out the timber, and may even require the construction of a common carrier from the market to comparatively inaccessible regions.

_Government Timber Sale Policy._ The National Forest timber sale policy, first of all, aims to prevent the loss of this valuable public property through forest fires. This phase of the policy, however, is covered under the chapter on protection. Next, it aims to utilize the ripe timber which can be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure the restocking of the land with young timber and the continuance of forest production. The price at which timber is sold represents, as required by statute, the appraised market value and a proper return to the public which owns it. It is disposed of in such a way as to prevent its speculative acquisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly.

National Forest timber has found its way into both the general, far distant market, and the local market. But it is the aim of the Forest Service to first of all provide for the requirements of local communities and industries, including the free use and sale at cost to settlers as authorized by statute. It is also the aim of the Forest Service policy to make timberlands of agricultural value available for settlement under conditions which prevent speculative acquisition but encourage permanent and genuine farming. According to this policy, land which at the present time is covered with a good stand of timber and which has been shown to have a greater value for agricultural purposes is cleared as soon as a bona fide sale can be consummated. And, lastly, it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possible the cost of protection and administration of the National Forests, and to yield a revenue to the States, since these are ent.i.tled by statute to 25 per cent. of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of local taxes through the government ownership of the forests.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground National Forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction.

View taken on the Rainier National Forest.]

_Annual Yield and Cut._ Each year the amount of timber which can be cut from each National Forest, according to sound forestry principles, is authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture. This cut is based upon the best available data as to the amount of mature and over-mature timber needing removal, and the amount of annual growth on each Forest.

At the present time only a small percentage of the authorized annual cut of the Forests is taken. Most Forests cut a very small part of their annual allotment, but a few Forests cut their full annual yield, or nearly so. On some Forests, the entire annual yield is used by local industries and no timber can be sent to the general market; on others a very small part of the annual yield is used by local needs and most of the cut can be sent to the general market. On the Cascade National Forest, in Oregon, for instance, the annual production is estimated at about 200,000,000 feet, while the present local needs can be supplied by approximately 1,000,000 feet. From such a Forest a large annual cut can be made for the general market. On the Deerlodge National Forest, in Montana, on the other hand, the annual yield is estimated to be about 40,000,000 feet, all of which is needed to supply the large copper mines near b.u.t.te. From Forests like this, no sales for the general market can be made.

Although the National Forests contain about six hundred billions of board feet of timber, or about one-fifth of the standing timber in the United States, only a small fraction of the available timber is actually disposed of. This is due to the comparative inaccessibility of this timber and the presence of large bodies of privately owned timber which lie between it and the market. The result of this condition is that the bulk of the salable timber on the Forests will be automatically saved until such a time when most of the privately owned timber has been cut.

In this way, future generations will benefit and the public will receive a much better price for it years hence than they could possibly obtain now.

_Timber Reconnoissance._ Before any timber can be sold to advantage, however, it is necessary to take an inventory of the timber resources.

In other words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, how much there is, and what can be done with it. This timber estimate, or timber reconnoissance, as it is called, is also needed to settle questions of t.i.tle arising from the presence of patented lands or valid claims; to determine if cutting is advisable on a given area, and, if so, under what stipulations; and to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to be sold. The annual yield, or the amount of timber grown or produced annually upon an area, must be the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and this yield can only be computed after an inventory of the timber has been made.

Timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or valuation strips) involves an estimate of the standing timber by small legal or natural subdivisions of land, with the necessary land surveys, the preparation of an accurate topographic and forest type map, and the compilation of detailed descriptive notes. These notes deal with the condition and character of the timber, the most practical methods of exploitation, the extent and character of the young growth, and many other factors which affect the management of timber lands. These data are secured at a cost of from 3 to 10 cents per acre, depending upon the accessibility and the topography of the region and the density of the timber. This work is carried on both in the summer and in the winter. Up to date, about 21,000,000 acres have been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about 48,000,000 acres by extensive methods.

_Logging the Timber._ In order that my reader may better understand various matters connected with the disposal of National Forest timber, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber and other forest products are taken from the woods, and the different steps necessary before a green tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad tie.

The methods of logging used in the National Forests are essentially the same as those used on private lands, with the exception of certain details, such as the protection of young growth, the cutting of snags, and the disposal of the brush. The methods used, of course, vary with the locality; they are different for the Pacific Coast, where donkey engines are used, than for the Rocky Mountains, where horses are largely employed. They vary with the climate, the topography, the size of the timber, and the kind of product to be harvested. But a typical logging operation, as carried on in the Sierras of California, will give an idea of how logs are taken from the forest.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.]

In the particular operation which I have in mind the timber was located on the western slope of the mountains between 3,500 and 5,000 feet in elevation. The slopes were of medium steepness and much of the timber was on level benches. The large sawmill was located at the lower edge of the timber and the logging camp was in the woods near the cutting. The felling of the trees, which were from 3 to 6 feet in diameter, was done by two men with a two-man saw. These men are the "fallers." Two men then cut the tree into logs and still other men called "swampers" cut the brush and fallen trees away so that the newly cut timber can be "skidded" to the railroad. This "skidding" is done by a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey-engine, which is fitted up with a long cable and a drum. After the log is attached to the cable out in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in the woods gives the signal and the engine starts, revolving the drum and winding up the cable at the same time pulling the log towards the engine. Just beside this engine is a platform from which the logs are loaded directly on flat cars. When six or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a locomotive hauls them to the sawmill where they are sawed into boards.

In this case as soon as the boards were cut they were placed in a flume in which there was a strong stream of water. In this they floated about 40 miles to a town in the valley below directly into the company's lumber yard.

In the Rocky Mountains one of the main forest products derived from the National Forests is railroad ties. On the particular operation with which the writer is familiar the Government had sold to a tie operator about 3,000,000 railroad ties under a long term contract. This tie operator had a large contract with a railroad company. The area of the sale, several thousand acres, was divided or surveyed into long strips each 100 to 150 feet wide and from one to one and a half miles long. A large camp and commissary was established on the area. There were about 100 tie choppers and each man was a.s.signed to a strip. On these strips the trees to be cut were marked by a Forest officer. Trees too small to make ties were left as a basis for a future tie operation in from forty to fifty years.

The tie choppers usually worked alone. They first felled the tree with a saw, cut the lower limbs off, and marked off the ties on the bark to see how many ties could be cut from the tree. The tree was then "scored"

with an ax on both sides in order to start making the two flat faces of the tie. These sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus making two smooth faces. The bark was then peeled from the other two faces and the tree was then cut into finished ties. After the ties were made the top of the tree was lopped, that is, the branches were cut from the trunk. In this operation these branches were scattered evenly over the ground. The tie chopper then cleared a road through the middle of his strip and "parked" his ties on the road. He then stamped his private mark on each tie. In the winter the ties were "hauled" on large sleds to the river bank. Each tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so that the company's scaler could count them and credit them to the man that made them. In the spring, when the river's banks were full, the ties were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, usually a town on a railroad line.

A Forest officer is detailed to an operation of this kind to inspect the choppers' work and count and stamp the ties. He sees to it that all trees that have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees not marked have been cut, that young growth is not unnecessarily injured, that the stumps are not left too high, that the tops are fully utilized, that the slashing or brush is disposed of according to the contract, and that the operator is keeping all his agreements in the contract.

_The First Step in Purchasing Government Timber._ After the desired body of timber has been located, the first step for any one desiring to purchase government timber is to communicate with an officer of the National Forest in which the timber is located. If only a small amount is desired--less than $50 in value--the local Ranger can arrange to make the sale without delay. Amounts valued at more than this can be sold only by the higher officials of the Service, that is the Supervisor, District Forester, or the Forester, according to the size of the sale.

The Supervisor can sell up to two million feet; larger sales are made by the District Forester or the Forester. All sales exceeding $100 in amount must be advertised, except those made to homestead settlers and farmers in a private sale. Sales are advertised in order to secure the largest number of bidders possible and thus prevent the monopoly of large bodies of timber by large timber operators.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains of California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir are the princ.i.p.al trees.

Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.]

_Procedure in an Advertised Sale._ After the applicant has selected the body of timber he wishes to purchase, he is furnished by the Supervisor with a sample application stating the area, estimated amount, minimum stumpage price, period allowed for cutting and removing the timber, and other conditions to be complied with, following as closely as possible the form of the final sale agreement. Usually, also, the purchaser is interested in the amount of timber which he may cut per acre. For this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees have been marked for cutting. A notice of the sale of the timber is then published, the choice of mediums and number of insertions depending upon whether the sale is of local, regional, or general interest. This notice describes the timber, gives the minimum stumpage prices that will be accepted, and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will be received. The period of advertising is at least 30 days, and in large sales from 3 to 6 months. Forms for bidding are furnished to the original applicant and others who signify their intention to bid. A deposit is required with all bids to show the good faith of the bidder.

In large transactions this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent. of the purchase price. On the date specified in the advertis.e.m.e.nt the Supervisor (or District Forester) opens all bids received and awards the sale to the highest bidder. The sale contract is then prepared and executed by the purchaser.

A specific statement of financial ability is required in all sales of ten million feet or more, and in smaller sales in the discretion of the approving officer. Such a statement may be required before the approval of the sale application, either formal or tentative, and in any event before the timber is awarded to the successful bidder. The contract must be supported by a suitable bond given by two responsible sureties or by a surety company authorized to do business with the United States.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest lands. Photo by the author.]