Harvard Psychological Studies Part 58

The introduction of rhyme into verse must affect the verse in two directions.

It makes one element in the time values, viz., the verse pause, much more flexible and favors 'run on' form of verses; it is an important factor in building larger unities; it correlates verses, and contributes definite 'Gestaltqualitaten' which make possible the recognition of structure and the control of the larger movements which determine this structure. Thus it gives plasticity and variety to the verse.

On the other hand, it limits the verse form in several directions. The general dynamic relations and the individual accents must conform to the types possible with rhyme. The expressional changes of pitch, which const.i.tute the 'melody,' or the 'inflections' of the sentences, play an important part. The dynamic and melodic phases of spoken verse which have important relations to the rhyme are not determined by the mere words. The verses may scan faultlessly, the lines may read smoothly and be without harsh and difficult combinations, and yet the total rhythmic effect may be indifferent or unpleasant. When a critic dilates on his infallible detection of an indefinable somewhat, independent of material aspects of the verse and traceable to a mystic charm of 'thought,' it may very well be that the una.n.a.lyzed thing lies in just such dynamic and melodic conditions of rhythm and rhyme.

The most primitive characteristic of music is the _ensemble_. Savage music is often little else than time-keeping. When the social consciousness would express itself in speech or movement in unison, some sort of automatic regulation is necessary. This is the beginning of music. The free reading of verse easily pa.s.ses over into singing or chanting. When this happens, the thing most noticeable in the new form is its regulated, automatic and somewhat rigid character. It is stereotyped throughout. Not only are the intervals and accents fixed, but the pitch and quality changes are now definite, sustained and recurrent. The whole sum of the motor processes of utterance has become coordinated and regulated. Along with this precision of all the movements comes a tendency to beat a new rhythm. This accompanying rhythm is simpler and broader in character; it is a kind of long swell on which the speech movements ripple. This second rhythm may express itself in a new movement of hand, head, foot or body; when it has become more conscious, as in patting time to a dance or chant, it develops complicated forms, and a third rhythm may appear beside it, to mark the main stresses of the two processes. The negro patting time for a dance beats the third fundamental rhythm with his foot, while his hands pat an elaborate second rhythm to the primary rhythm of the dancers.

The essential character of musical rhythm, as contrasted with the rhythm of both simple sounds and of verse, is just this coordination of a number of rhythms which move side by side. This is the reason for the immense complexity and variety of musical rhythms. The processes check each other and furnish a basis for a precision and elaborateness of rhythmical movement in the individual parts which is quite impossible in a simple rhythm.

Even when the concomitant rhythms are not expressed, as in an unaccompanied solo, an accompaniment of some sort is present in the motor apparatus, and contributes its effect to the consciousness. This regulation of the movement by the coincidence of several rhythms is the cause of the striking regularity of the temporal relations. At some points in the musical series the several movement cycles may appear in the same phase, and at these points the same irregularities as in verse are possible, as in the case of pauses at the ends of periods and the irregularities of phrasing. It is evident in cases of expressional variations of tempo that a single broad rhythm is dominating and serving as a cue for the other more elaborate rhythmic processes, instead of being regulated by them.

STUDIES IN SYMMETRY.[1]

BY ETHEL D. PUFFER.

[1] SOURCES OF ILl.u.s.tRATIONS.

Fig. 1 was copied from Reiss u. Stubel, 'Todtenfeld v. Ancou,'

Berlin, 1880-1887.

Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 11 were copied from the publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology by the kind permission of the Direction.

Fig. 9. was copied from A.C. Haddon, 'The Decorative Art of British New Guinea,' Cunningham Memoir, N., Royal Irish Academy, 1894.

Fig. 10 was copied from Franz Boas, 'The Decorative Art of the Indians of the North Pacific Coast,' Bulletin of the Am. Mus.

of Nat. Hist., Vol. IX.

I. THE PROBLEMS OF SYMMETRY.

The problem of aesthetic satisfaction in symmetrical forms is easily linked with the well-known theory of 'sympathetic reproduction.' If there exists an instinctive tendency to imitate visual forms by motor impulses, the impulses suggested by the symmetrical form would seem to be especially in harmony with the system of energies in our bilateral organism, and this harmony may be the basis of our pleasure. But we should then expect that all s.p.a.ce arrangements which deviate from complete symmetry, and thus suggest motor impulses which do not correspond to the natural bilateral type would fail to give aesthetic pleasure. Such, however, is not the case. Non-symmetrical arrangements of s.p.a.ce are often extremely pleasing.

This contradiction disappears if we are able to show that the apparently non-symmetrical arrangement contains a hidden symmetry, and that all the elements of that arrangement contribute to bring about just that bilateral type of motor impulses which is characteristic of geometrical symmetry. The question whether or not this is the fact makes the leading problem of this paper, and the answer to it must throw light on the value of the theory itself.

An exhaustive treatment of our question would thus divide itself into two parts; the first dealing with real (or geometrical) symmetry, the second with apparent asymmetry; the first seeking to show that there is a real aesthetic pleasure in geometrical symmetry, and that this pleasure is indeed based on the harmony of the motor impulses suggested by symmetry, with the natural motor impulses of the human organism; the second seeking to show in what manner aesthetically pleasing but asymmetrical arrangements conform to the same principles.

Within these two groups of problems two general types of investigation are seen to be required; experiment, and the a.n.a.lysis of aesthetic objects.

The main question, as stated above, is of course whether the theory can explain our pleasure in arrangements which are completely or partly symmetrical. It is, however, an indispensible preliminary to this question, to decide whether the pleasure in symmetrical arrangements of s.p.a.ce is indeed immediate and original. If it were shown to be a satisfaction of expectation, bred partly from the observation of symmetrical forms in nature, partly from the greater convenience of symmetrical objects in daily use, the whole question of a psychophysical explanation would have no point. If no original aesthetic pleasure is felt, the problem would be transformed to a demand for the explanation of the various ways in which practical satisfaction is given by symmetrical objects and arrangements. The logical order, then, for our investigation would be: First, the appearance of symmetry in the productions of primitive life, as a (debatable) aesthetic phenomenon emerging from pre-aesthetic conditions; secondly, the experimental study of real symmetry; thirdly, the a.n.a.lysis of geometrical symmetry in art, especially in painting and architecture, by means of which the results of the preceding studies could be checked and confirmed. Having once established a theory of the aesthetic significance of real symmetry, we should next have to examine asymmetrical, beautiful objects with reference to the relation of their parts to a middle line; to isolate the elements which suggest motor impulses; to find out how far it is possible to establish a system of subst.i.tution of these psychological factors and how far such subst.i.tution takes place in works of art--_i.e._, to what extent a subst.i.tutional symmetry or balance is found in pleasing arrangements.

These investigations, again, would fall into the two groups of experiment and a.n.a.lysis. The products of civilized art are too complicated to admit of the complete a.n.a.lysis and isolation of elements necessary to establish such a system of subst.i.tution of psychological factors as we seek. From suggestions, however, obtained from pleasing asymmetrical arrangements, first, isolated elements may be treated experimentally, and secondly, the results checked and confirmed by works of art.

With regard to the study of objects without a natural or suggested middle line, as for instance sculpture, many types of architecture, landscapes, gardens, room-arrangements, etc., we may fitly consider it as a corollary to the study of asymmetrical objects with artificial limits which do suggest a middle. If we find, by the study of them, that a system of subst.i.tution of psychological factors does obtain, the whole field can be covered by the theory already propounded, and its application extended to the minutest details. The hypothesis, having been so far confirmed, may be then easily applied to the field of asymmetrical objects without a natural middle line.

The set of problems here suggested to the student of symmetry will not be fully followed out in this paper. The experimental treatment of geometrical symmetry, the a.n.a.lysis of the completely symmetrical products of civilized art, and the a.n.a.lysis of all forms of asymmetry except asymmetry in pictures will be omitted. If, however, the fact of an original aesthetic feeling for symmetry is established by the study of primitive art, and the theory of the balance of motor impulses through the subst.i.tution of factors is established by the experimental treatment of isolated elements, and further confirmed by the a.n.a.lysis of pictures, the general argument may be taken as sufficiently supported. This paper, then, will contain three sections: an introductory one on symmetry in primitive art, and two main sections, one on experiments in subst.i.tutional symmetry, and one on subst.i.tutional symmetry or balance in pictures.

II. SYMMETRY IN PRIMITIVE ART.

The question which this section will attempt to answer is this: Is there in primitive art an original and immediate aesthetic feeling for symmetry? This question depends on two others which must precede it: To what extent does symmetry actually appear in primitive art? and, How far must its presence be accounted for by other than aesthetic demands?

For the purpose of this inquiry the word _primitive_ may be taken broadly as applying to the products of savage and half-savage peoples of to-day, as well as to those of prehistoric races. The expression _primitive art_, also, requires a word of explanation. The primitive man seldom makes purely ornamental objects, but, on the other hand, most of his articles of daily use have an ornamental character. We have to consider primitive art, therefore, as represented in the form and ornamentation of all these objects, const.i.tuting practically an household inventory, with the addition of certain drawings and paintings which do not appear to serve a definite practical end. These last, however, const.i.tute only a small proportion of the material.

The method of the following outline treatment will be to deduct from the object under consideration those symmetrical elements which seem to be directly traceable to non-aesthetic influences; such elements as are not thus to be accounted for must be taken as evidence of a direct pleasure in, and desire for symmetry on the part of primitive man.

These possible non-aesthetic influences may be provisionally suggested to be the technical conditions of construction, the greater convenience and hence desirability of symmetrical objects for practical use, and the symmetrical character of natural forms which were imitated.

The first great group of objects is given in primitive architecture.

Here is found almost complete unanimity of design, the conical, hemispherical or beehive form being well-nigh universal. The hut of the Hottentots, a cattle-herding, half-nomadic people, is a good type of this. A circle of flexible staves is stuck into the ground, bent together and fastened at the top, and covered with skins. But this is the form of shelter constructed with the greatest ease, suitable to the demands of elastic materials, boughs, twigs, reeds, etc., and giving the greatest amount of s.p.a.ce with the least material. There are, indeed, a few examples of the rectangular form of dwelling among various primitive races, but these seem to be more or less open to explanation by the theory advanced by Mr. V. Mendeleff, of the U.S.

Bureau of Ethnology. "In his opinion the rectangular form of architecture which succeeds the type under discussion, must have resulted from the circular form by the bringing together within a limited area of many houses.... This part.i.tion would naturally be built straight as a two-fold measure of economy."[2] This opinion is confirmed by Mr. Cushing's observations among the Zuni villages, where the pueblos have circular forms on the outskirts. Thus the shape of the typical primitive dwelling is seen to be fully accounted for as the product of practical considerations alone. It may therefore be dismissed as offering no especial points of interest for this inquiry.

[2] Cushing, F.H.: 'Pueblo Pottery and Zuni Culture-growth,'

Rep. of Bur. of Ethnol., 1882-3, p. 473.

Next in the order of primitive development are the arts of binding and weaving. The stone axe or arrow-head, for example, was bound to a wooden staff, and had to be lashed with perfect evenness,[3] and when in time the material and method of fastening changed, the geometrical forms of this careful binding continued to be engraved at the juncture of blade and handle of various implements. It should be noted, however, that these binding-patterns, in spite of their superfluous character, remained symmetrical.

[3] Haddon, A.C.: 'Evolution in Art,' London, 1895, pp. 84 ff.

On the great topic of symmetry in weaving, monographs could be written. Here it is sufficient to recall[4] that the absolutely necessary technique of weaving in all its various forms of interlacing, plaiting, netting, embroidering, etc., implies order, uniformity, and symmetry. The chance introduction of a thread or withe of a different color, brings out at once an ordered pattern in the result; the crowding together or pressing apart of elements, a different alternation of the woof, a change in the order of intersection, all introduce changes by the natural necessities of construction which have the effect of purpose. So far, then, as the simple weaving is concerned, the aesthetic demand for symmetry may be discounted. While it may be operative, the forms can be explained by the necessities of construction, and we have no right to a.s.sume an aesthetic motive.

[4] Holmes, W.H.: 'Textile Art in its Relation to the Development of Form and Ornament,' Rep. of Bur. of Ethnol., 1884-5, p. 195.

The treatment of human and animal forms in weaving is, however, indicative of a direct pleasure in symmetry. The human form appears almost exclusively (much schematized) _en face_. When in profile, as for instance in Mexican and South American work, it is doubled--that is, two figures are seen face to face. Animal figures, on the other hand, are much used as row-ornaments in profile.[5] It would seem that only the linear conception of the row or band with its suggestions of movement in one direction, justified the use of profile (_e.g._, in Peruvian woven stuffs), since it is almost always seen under those conditions, indicating that a limited rectangular s.p.a.ce is felt as satisfactorily filled only by a symmetrical figure.[6] Moreover, and still more confirmatory of this theory, even these row-pattern profiles are immensely distorted toward symmetry, and every 'degradation' of form, to use Professor Haddon's term, is in the direction of symmetry. (See Fig. 1.)

[5] Reiss, W., und Stubel, A.: 'Todtenfeld von Ancon,' Berlin, 1880-7, Bd. II.

[6] Hein, W.: 'Die Verwendung der Menschen-Gestalt in Flechtwerken,' Mitteil. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Bd.

XXI.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1.]

The shape of primitive pottery is conditioned by the following influences: The shapes of utensils preceding clay, such as skins, gourds, sh.e.l.ls, etc., which have been imitated, the forms of basket models, and the conditions of construction (formation by the hands).

For all these reasons, most of these shapes are circular. The only (in the strict sense) symmetrical shapes found are of unmistakably animal origin, and it is interesting to notice the gradual return of these to the eurhythmic form; puma, bird, frog, etc., gradually changing into head, tail and leg excrescences, and then handles and nodes (rectangular panels), upon a round bowl or jar L, as shown in the figures. In fact, in ancient American pottery,[7] at least, all the symmetrical ornamentations can be traced to the opposition of head and tail, and the sides between them, of these animal forms. But beyond this there is no degradation of the broad outline of the design. The head and tail, and sides, become respectively handles and nodes--but the symmetry becomes only more and more emphasized. And as in the case of textiles, the ornaments of the rectangular s.p.a.ces given by the nodes are strikingly symmetrical. Many of these are from animal motives, and nearly always heads are turned back over the body, tails exaggerated, or either or both doubled, to get a symmetrical effect.

Although much of the symmetrical ornament, again, is manifestly from textile models, its symmetrical character is so carefully preserved against the suggestions of the circular form that a direct pleasure in its symmetry may be inferred. (See Figs. 2-7.)

[7] Cushing, F.H.: _op. cit._; Holmes, W.H.: three articles on pottery, Rep. of Bur. of Ethnol., 1882-83, p. 265, p. 367, and p. 443.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4]

The subject of drawing can be here only touched upon, but the results of study go to show, in general, two main directions of primitive expression: pictorial representation, aiming at truth of life, and symbolic ornament. The drawings of Australians, Hottentots and Bushmen, and the carvings of the Esquimaux and of the prehistoric men of the reindeer period show remarkable vigor and naturalness; while the ornamentation of such tribes as the South Sea Islanders has a richness and formal beauty that compare favorably with the decoration of civilized contemporaries. But these two types of art do not always keep pace with each other. The petroglyphs of the North American Indians[8] exhibit the greatest irregularity, while their tattooing is extremely regular and symmetrical. The Brazilian savage [9] draws freehand in a very lively and grotesque manner, but his patterns are regular and carefully developed. Again, not all have artistic talents in the same direction. Dr. Schurtz, in his 'Ornamentik der Aino,'[10]