Western Himalaya and Tibet Part 6

On the left hand, above the road, there was not a trace of verdure in the ravine; but just below the road a small spring burst out from the stony ground. For three or four yards the banks of the little streamlet were quite bare, but at about that distance from its source they were fringed with luxuriant marsh plants, _Veronica Beccabunga_ and _Anagallis_, rushes, and several kinds of gra.s.ses, which gradually increased in abundance. Within a hundred yards of its origin a thicket of willows bordered the stream, and a rich vegetation grew under their shade. From this it would appear that the barrenness of the country cannot be ascribed to any fault of temperature or of alt.i.tude, but solely to the deficiency of moisture.

[Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS THE RUNANG Pa.s.s.

_August, 1847._]

On the next ridge beyond this little green spot, the ascent continued steep, over loose shingly soil, among scattered trees of deodar, and occasionally a fine tree of _Pinus Gerardiana_; a spinous _Astragalus_, and several species of _Artemisia_, formed almost all the scanty vegetation. Higher up there was, in one place, a good view of the Sutlej to the south-east, with a very lofty snowy mountain beyond. A little further on, the pines ceased to grow, and no tree but juniper was seen, the vegetation becoming more and more wretched in appearance, though the same _Astragalus_ and _Artemisiae_ predominated.

Above 12,000 feet, two or three alpine species made their appearance; these were a _Polygonum_, a _Mulgedium_, and a little shrubby _Potentilla_. Except these, however, not one of the numerous alpine forms observed on the Werang pa.s.s two days before were to be seen.

We encamped at an elevation of 12,500 feet on the north-east slope of the ridge, overhanging a deep wide valley, in which there were several patches of cultivation still green, at an elevation which I estimated at about 1000 feet below the level of our tents. By this wide valley, (in the lower part of which, on its east side, is the village of Kanam,) we were still separated from the central range on which the Runang pa.s.s is situated. The hills all round had a desolate aspect.

They were rounded in outline, and appeared quite smooth and dest.i.tute of herbage, excepting large dark-green patches of juniper, by which they were mottled. A single stunted tree of _Pinus excelsa_ stood within a short distance of our encampment, and four or five hundred feet lower was a small grove, apparently of birch. During the afternoon a furious west wind blew without intermission. The morning had been quite calm, but before noon the wind had begun to blow, and gradually increased in violence till late in the afternoon; after dark it became calm.

The next morning was clear, with scarcely any wind, but the mountains above us were partly shrouded in mist. For the first time during our journey we had _Zobos_ furnished for the conveyance of our tents.

These animals, which are mules between a Yak bull and Indian cow, are intermediate between the two, having most of the peculiarities by which the Yak is distinguished, though in a much less degree. Their colour varies much,--black, white, and iron-grey being all common.

They have coa.r.s.e long s.h.a.ggy hair, much shorter than in the Yak, a stout rounded body, and the tail has a small tuft at the end, quite similar in miniature to that of the Yak. These mules are exceedingly common in Upper Kunawar and Hangarang, and are much preferred as beasts of burden to the Yak, being more docile, and less sensitive to climatic influences.

[Sidenote: THE RUNANG Pa.s.s.

_August, 1847._]

The first half-mile of the ascent to the pa.s.s was very gentle, till we pa.s.sed round the hollow of the valley which lay below our encampment.

The hill-sides were covered with stones, among which grew a few tufts of thyme, a large-leaved saxifrage, a yellow _Scorzonera_, a curious _Polygonum_, and an _Oxyria_, the same in appearance with that of the Alps of Europe. Two or three little rills of water trickled across the road, but their margins had no trace of green. The remainder of the ascent was more rapid, but nowhere fatiguing, and I reached the top about 9 A.M. Nothing can be conceived more dreary and bare than the aspect of the pa.s.s and the mountains all around. The hills, which at a distance appeared smooth and rounded, were now seen to be covered with loose stones piled upon one another, in the crevices of which a few plants found an attachment for their roots. The elevation was about 14,500 feet, but there was no appearance of snow. To the north-east a wide and straight valley ran from the crest, at the end of which, far below and perhaps eight miles off, was seen the village of Sungnam, beyond which another lofty range of equally rounded mountains, apparently smooth, ran parallel to that on which I stood. On this range, at a level, to the eye sensibly the same as that of the Runang pa.s.s, an evident track indicated the pa.s.s of Hangarang, over which lay the continuation of our journey.

[Sidenote: VEGETATION.

_August, 1847._]

I spent a considerable time on the top of the pa.s.s, and by close searching, in the crevices of the stones, especially on the hill which rose to the south-east, I succeeded in collecting a considerable number of species of plants, though very much fewer than on the Werang pa.s.s two days before. From our morning's camp to the top of the pa.s.s the whole number of species which I met with was only forty-six, not half of which were observed on the summit. The number gathered on the former pa.s.s was nearly three times as great. It must not be forgotten, however, in comparing the two ranges, that the Werang pa.s.s is 1300 feet lower than that of Runang, and ought therefore, independent of climate, to be more productive. The species which were observed for the first time on the summit of the Runang pa.s.s were not more than six, and were all forms which I have since found to be abundant throughout the higher parts of Tibet. A little willow, creeping among the stones, and scarcely more luxuriant than _Salix herbacea_, was the only shrubby plant. The others were _Oxytropis chiliophylla_, _Biebersteinia odora_, a _Draba_, _Lamium rhomboideum_ of Bentham, and a species of rhubarb, of which I found only a few leaves and one or two panicles, from which the ripe fruit had nearly fallen away.

The descent from the pa.s.s to Sungnam was even more barren and desolate than the other side. The valley was open and almost straight, and the slope gradual. Till nearly half-way not a drop of water occurred on the road, and for miles almost the only vegetation on the hill-sides was an erect branched _Polygonum_, never more than a foot in height.

At an elevation of about 10,000 feet, a few deodars occurred, all miserably stunted in height, though often with trunks of considerable diameter. Gerard's pine, and the ash of Tibet, also appeared a little lower, but in very small numbers. During the greater part of the descent, the white houses of Sungnam were in sight, to all appearance at the end of the valley down which we were proceeding; but when near the bottom, we discovered that we were still separated from them by a wide and level plain, that of the Ruskalan river. On the opposite side of this plain, on the side of a hill just sufficiently high to terminate the vista down the valley by which we descended from the pa.s.s, stands the town of Sungnam; while the cultivated lands, which form a wide belt, scarcely higher than the level of the river, were entirely out of sight till we arrived close to the precipitous bank parallel to the river. Here the descent was abrupt to the bed of the Ruskalan. The bank was alluvial, with enormous boulders, and was covered with tufts of _Ephedra_, a remarkable leafless plant with rod-like branches, which is abundant in every part of northern Tibet, especially in the driest and hottest exposures. It extends also occasionally into the partially rainy district, being found in Kunawar nearly as far west as the bridge of w.a.n.gtu.

[Sidenote: SUNGNAM.

_August, 1847._]

Sungnam is one of the princ.i.p.al places of Kunawar, dividing with Kanam, which we did not visit, the claim to be the princ.i.p.al seat in the Sutlej valley of the Buddhist religion. It contains numerous temples and monasteries, with also a considerable industrial population. Cultivation occupies a great part of the valley, and extends up the course of the stream to a considerable distance. The level tract along the river has in many places a breadth of nearly a quarter of a mile, and the town occupies a ridge on the mountain side, to which a gently-sloping road leads from the bridge by which we crossed the Ruskalan.

The elevation of Sungnam above the level of the sea is 9000 feet.

Still the vine thrives well, the steep slopes facing the river being covered with vineyards: the grapes were not yet ripe. The princ.i.p.al fruit-trees are apricots and apples. Willows and poplars are also frequent in the village; a new species of the latter being for the first time observed, with leaves white and downy underneath, which appears in no way to differ from _Populus alba_, the common white poplar of Europe.

FOOTNOTES:

[5] I have carefully compared, since my return to England, a great many specimens of the Himalayan _Picea_, and am sorry to be obliged to dissent from the opinion of their distinctness, which has been expressed by many excellent observers. Great variations occur in length of leaf, which is either green on both sides, or very glaucous below. All have notched leaves, but the notch varies much in depth and form. There are also differences in the form of the cones and the shape of the scales. The long green-leaved state is that of the moist Himalaya; in the driest regions the very short glaucous-leaved form occurs. There are, however, among the specimens collected by Wallich, Strachey, and myself, so many intermediate forms of leaf, that I feel satisfied that all must be considered states of one species, varying, like most _Coniferae_, with climate and other accidental circ.u.mstances.

[6] I have now no doubt that the whole of this descent was over an ancient glacier moraine, but I was not at the time familiar with glaciers or their moraines by personal experience; and though on this and other similar occasions my notes show that I was much puzzled by the numerous transported blocks, the idea of this explanation did not suggest itself to me till I had an opportunity of seeing the connection of such phenomena with actual moraines.

CHAPTER IV.

Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to Hangarang Pa.s.s -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pa.s.s -- View from pa.s.s -- Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with sh.e.l.ls -- Lari -- Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate -- Saline exudations

The Hangarang ridge, as we may conveniently call that mountain range on which the pa.s.s of Hangarang is situated, forms the boundary between the districts of Kunawar and Hangarang. As this range terminates at or close to the point where the Sutlej is joined by the Piti river, this division is geographically convenient. It has also a marked physical signification, forming the absolute limit of the deodar and Gerard's pine; and indeed, if we except the juniper, of all tree vegetation.

On the 22nd of August, our party left Sungnam to ascend towards the Hangarang pa.s.s, encamping, as on the two previous occasions, on the upper part of the ascent, so as to get to the summit of the pa.s.s at an early hour next day. Our road lay up a narrow ravine, through which a small stream descended from the vicinity of the Hangarang pa.s.s, to join the Ruskalan immediately below Sungnam. We followed for a long time the course of this rivulet, so that the ascent was by no means fatiguing. A very few stunted deodars, and a single tree of _Pinus Gerardiana_, were the only trees met with. A little shrubby vegetation was now and then seen, consisting of an ash, rose, _Colutea_, _Lonicera_, and _Spiraea_. The banks of the ravine were everywhere composed of a conglomerate of angular stones, in general imbedded in soft clay, though the matrix was not unfrequently calcareous, and in several places even composed of crystalline carbonate of lime.

[Sidenote: BEDS OF CONGLOMERATE.

_August, 1847._]

The hard calcareous conglomerates are, I think, of different origin from the clayey ones. Indeed, I was induced to believe from what I saw in the neighbourhood of Sungnam, and occasionally in other districts (as I shall have again occasion to notice), that the calcareous conglomerates, which only occur in the neighbourhood of the limestone formation, and therefore where calcareous springs are common, are formed by the infiltration of water containing lime among beds of loose shingle which have acc.u.mulated along the base of the steep hills. These calcareous conglomerates are quite local, never very extensive, and are often covered with an incrustation of lime, showing the continued existence of the calcareous springs, by the action of which I suppose them to have been formed.

[Sidenote: ALLUVIAL CONGLOMERATE.

_August, 1847._]

The clay beds, on the other hand, are continuous and uniform in appearance. They vary much in thickness, but are on the whole much thicker and more remarkable in the upper part of the ravine, where (on the east side) a ma.s.s of clay, not less than five or six hundred feet in thickness, has acc.u.mulated, forming steep sloping or quite perpendicular banks, which at the top are worn away into pinnacles, and excavated into deep grooves and hollows, I presume by the action of melting snow. The fragments of rock which it contained were all angular, or at most a very little worn at the edges.

Five or six miles from Sungnam, the road left the course of the ravine, and began rapidly to ascend the steep spur which bounded it on the left. At first we followed a fissure in the clay conglomerate, which still had a thickness of nearly two hundred feet. Above, the ridge was rocky and very steep. When we had attained a sufficient height to overlook the valley by which we had ascended from Sungnam, I was able to estimate better than while in the ravine, the extent of the clay deposit. It was now seen to occupy both sides of the valley, and to be pretty equally diffused throughout, but certainly thicker on the left or eastern side,--in the upper part at least, for low down, just behind Sungnam, it capped a round sloping hill of considerable elevation to the right of the little streamlet and of the road. The valley did not narrow at the lower extremity, where it debouched into that of the Ruskalan, so much as to give any reason for supposing that it could have been closed by a barrier, so as to form a lake. Indeed, the absolute elevation of the conglomerate was so great at the upper end of the valley, that it would be necessary to suppose a barrier several thousand feet above the bed of the Ruskalan to produce such an effect. The greater thickness of the conglomerate in the upper part of the ravine, and the almost complete angularity of the fragments, were equally opposed to such a view. Nor was I able to form any probable conjecture as to the mode in which these acc.u.mulations had been formed.

[Sidenote: ROCKS OF HANGARANG.

_August, 1847._]

In the earlier part of the day's journey, the rock, where exposed, was invariably clay-slate, not different in appearance from that which, commencing at Lipa, had been observed on every part of the Runang ridge. It dipped generally at a high angle, but was often much contorted. In the upper part of the ravine, thick beds of a hard cherty quartz rock alternated with the slate; and in the course of the last steep ascent, at an elevation of about 13,500 feet, the first limestone was observed. It was of a dark blue colour, very hard, coa.r.s.ely stratified, and much veined with white calcareous spar. It seemed to dip at a high angle towards the north-east.

The ridge by which we ascended was quite bare of trees and exceedingly barren, producing very little vegetation of any sort, and no novelty, till we had almost attained an elevation of 14,000 feet. We then observed bushes of a species of _Caragana_ (_C. versicolor_), the _Dama_ of the Tibetans, a very curious stunted shrub, which is very extensively distributed at elevations which no other woody plants attain, and which, therefore, is much prized and extensively used as fuel. I had not met with it before, nor does it appear to extend at all into the wooded region of the Himalaya. We encamped on a flat piece of ground at 14,000 feet. Notwithstanding the elevation, the heat of the sun was very great during the day, but the evening and night were extremely cold.

[Sidenote: HANGARANG Pa.s.s.

_August, 1847._]

Early next morning a short steep ascent of about 800 feet brought us to the top of the pa.s.s, which has an elevation of 14,800 feet above the sea. The _Dama_, in green patches from two to four feet in diameter, was abundant till near the summit. The pa.s.s occupies a hollow in the ridge, which rises considerably on both sides. To the north-west, on the northern exposure, there was at a short distance one small patch of snow, from which the pa.s.s and surrounding mountains were otherwise quite free. No remarkable difficulty of breathing was experienced by any of the party, except immediately after any exertion. The ascent was latterly so steep, that it was necessary to stop frequently to take breath, and the pulse was found to be very considerably accelerated when counted immediately after walking. There was, however, a great difference according to the individual; in one case it rose as high as 136; but a few minutes' rest restored it nearly to the usual standard.

At the crest of the pa.s.s, the rock was a hard bluish-grey limestone, traversed in every direction by numerous crystalline veins. I ascended the hill to the south-east, to an elevation of nearly 16,000 feet, which was within a few hundred feet of the summit. At that height it was composed of a ma.s.s of loose fragments of black slate, perfectly moveable, and so steep, that it was difficult to progress in an upward direction. Vegetation had almost disappeared; more, however, from the moveable shingly soil than from the elevation attained, for wherever a solid rock peeped out, straggling plants still lingered; the rhubarb, _Biebersteinia_, a minute saxifrage, and a yellow lichen, were the species which attained the greatest alt.i.tude.

The view from the summit of the pa.s.s, and the steep hill above it, was extensive, but very desolate. In the direction of our previous journey, the rounded outline of the Runang range bounded the view, but in front a much wider and more diversified extent of country was embraced. To the eastward, the lofty mountain of Porgyul was seen almost to its base; its upper part a magnificent ma.s.s of snow, the summit being upwards of 22,000 feet in height. To the north of Porgyul, where the valley of the Piti river allowed the distant mountains to be seen, a succession of ranges rose one beyond another, the furthest evidently at a great distance, and covered with heavy snow[7].

The vegetation at the summit of the ridge was even more scanty than on the Runang pa.s.s. There was, however, more novelty in species than I had met with there. A gra.s.s, several saxifrages, _Potentillae_ and _Seda_, a little _Thermopsis_, an _Anemone_, and a beautiful _Delphinium_ (_D. Brunonianum_, Royle), were the new species observed; and these, I believe, (as was indeed to be expected from the minuteness with which the country had been investigated by Dr.

Royle's collectors,) were all previously described species.

[Sidenote: HANGO.

_August, 1847._]

From the pa.s.s the descent was pretty steep all the way to Hango, a small village, elevated 11,500 feet. The road lay on the side of a ravine, keeping the hills on the left hand, and the channel of the stream on the right. The _Dama_, which had disappeared at the summit, was again plentiful on the northern slope; and a shrubby species of _Potentilla_, quite new to me, was exceedingly common. Otherwise, little change was visible. The road was good, but the hills were dry and stony.

The village of Hango, notwithstanding its great elevation, has a considerable extent of cultivation, though I think the corn was less luxuriant than at lower levels. The wheat was still green, and rather scanty, a good deal of a wild oat (perhaps _Avena fatua_) being mixed with it; but the barley was stronger and more productive. There was also a number of fields of _Hordeum aegiceras_, that curious awnless monstrous barley, which seems peculiar to the higher regions of Tibet, where it is very frequently cultivated. This grain was much further advanced than the wheat, being nearly ripe. The arable lands of Hango are nearly dest.i.tute of trees, a few willows being the only arboreous vegetation. They are abundantly supplied with water, circulating in copious rills among the different fields, which are disposed in terraces one above another, faced by walls about three feet in height.

On the margins of the cultivation, stimulated by the moisture derived from the irrigation, there was a very abundant growth of shrubs, and of luxuriant herbaceous plants. The gooseberry, _Hippophae_, and rose, were the shrubs, and several large _Umbelliferae_, one of which was closely allied to the _a.s.safoetida_, a tall _Thalictrum_, a yellow-flowered _Medicago_, _Verbasc.u.m Thapsus_, two species of thistle, the common henbane, dock, mint, _Plantago_, and various species of _Artemisia_, were the most common herbaceous plants.

[Sidenote: HANGO VALLEY.

_August, 1847._]

On the 24th of August we proceeded to Lio, a village on the right or west bank of the Piti river. The road crosses the small stream which runs past Hango, a little below the village, and gradually ascends the slope of the hill on its left bank. Close to the stream there is a bank of clayey alluvium, with stones, and traces of it may be seen at intervals for some distance down the valley, but it is nowhere of any great thickness. The hill along which the road lay was composed of a cherty sandstone of a light-blue colour, often nearly white; in fragments, and especially when pulverized, it was quite so; and being extremely brittle, the slopes were covered with fine white dust, the glare of which, in the bright sunshine, was very unpleasant. On this gravelly ascent the vegetation was equally scanty, and much the same in character as at moderate elevations on the two previous days; a large thistle, species of _Artemisia_, _Chenopodiaceae_, and a spinous _Astragalus_, being the most abundant plants.

The road continued to ascend gently for about half a mile, rapidly increasing its height above the stream, which had a considerable slope. The next two miles were tolerably level, over a good but stony road, at an elevation a little under 12,000 feet. A species of _Crambe_, with a long fusiform root, smelling somewhat like a turnip, was common along this part of the road. The young leaves of this plant are used by the Tibetans as a pot-herb, and are said to be well-flavoured. A species of currant (_R. glandulosum_), with viscid, glandular, very aromatic-smelling leaves, was also met with; its fruit, now ripe, had a sweetish taste, but no flavour. It is a common Tibetan species, extending on the Indus as low down as 6500 feet.