Western Himalaya and Tibet Part 19

_April, 1848._]

The platforms of lacustrine clay are called, in Kashmir, "_karewah_."

They are often quite dry, and generally uncultivated, but where water is procurable they are highly cultivated, yielding luxuriant crops of wheat and barley. A proper application of artificial irrigation would, I believe, make the whole of these more elevated parts of the plain fertile, as the soil is everywhere well adapted for the growth of corn. These karewahs generally run parallel to the lateral streams which join the Jelam, and extend from the base of the mountains till they are cut off by the river. There are, however, in the upper part of the valley, several isolated patches, all horizontally stratified, from which I infer that they had originally been continuous. One of these, near Bijbeara, forms a table-topped hill of considerable extent, surrounded on all sides by low land. Several low hills near Islamabad, also, are evidently outlying patches of the same formation.

The sands and sandy clays of these platforms are usually quite non-fossiliferous; but I determined the lacustrine nature of the strata by finding, on the flanks of Takht-i-Suleiman, a hill near the town of Kashmir, and close to the city lake, but at least thirty feet above its level, a bed of clay, which contained, abundantly, sh.e.l.ls of the genera _Lymnaea_ and _Paludina_.

The main chain of the Himalaya, north of Kashmir, consists, where I crossed it, by the Zoji pa.s.s north of Baltal, of metamorphic schist; and all its branches, which descend towards the plain of Kashmir, seem to be formed of the same rock. Along the north side of the valley, however, a series of hills of trap rise, almost isolated, out of the plain. Ahathung, near the Wulur lake, is, I believe, the most westerly of these, but I did not visit it, and only infer its structure from its conical shape and from its similarity in appearance to those further east. Near the town of Kashmir there are two of these isolated hills, composed of an amygdaloidal trap: these are Hari-Parbat, which is fortified, and Takht-i-Suleiman, which rises about eight hundred feet above the plain. The former lies to the north-west, and the latter on the north-east side of the town.

The lake or _Dal_ of Kashmir lies to the north of the town, stretching from the base of these two hills to the more lofty mountain range which bounds the valley on the north. It is nearly circular and four or five miles in diameter, but is only open in its northern half, the end nearest the town being occupied by large islands, with narrow channels between them, in some of which there is a good deal of current. Its waters are discharged into the Jelam by a considerable stream, which, flowing from its south-east corner, runs to the westward in a course nearly parallel to the southern margin of the lake for nearly a mile, when it turns abruptly south to enter the Jelam in the middle of the town of Kashmir. This stream is evidently an artificial ca.n.a.l, and the embankment by which it is separated from the lake appears to have been constructed in order to keep the surface of the latter higher than it would naturally be. The stream at its point of exit from the lake flows through a narrow ca.n.a.l of masonry, and has, when the Jelam is low, a fall of several feet. A pair of flood-gates prevent the return of the stream in times of flood, when the waters of the river are higher than those of the lake.

The Wulur lake, below the junction of the Sind river with the Jelam, appears to be similar in appearance to that close to the town, and, like it, to owe its extent in part to artificial means. Its dimensions are, however, much greater. There are several large marshy tracts in different parts of the plain, which, by a little engineering, might also be converted into lakes: one in particular, near Avantipura, is quite under water in spring, though in summer and autumn it is only a swamp.

[Sidenote: CLIMATE OF KASHMIR.

_April, 1848._]

The climate of Kashmir is the same as that of the interior valleys of the Himalaya, but modified by its extreme western position, which brings it within the influence of the spring rains which prevail in Affghanistan and the countries on the lower mountain course of the Indus. There are at least four months of winter; and in general a good deal of snow falls. March and April are very rainy; the summer months mostly dry and fine. The periodical rains of India cannot be said to extend into Kashmir; but in July and August showers and thunder-storms are said to be frequent. The spring and autumn are unhealthy seasons.

In the former, the cold rainy weather affects those who have already suffered from the malaria produced by the action of a powerful sun on neglected swamps. The abandonment of cultivation, in consequence of the long oppression of the country under a foreign government, has been the cause of the increase of marshy ground. The river in seasons of flood rises higher than the level of the lowest portion of the alluvial land, and is only excluded (as in Holland) by means of artificial works along the course of the river. By the omission to repair these _bunds_, or d.y.k.es, a large extent of country which might be under cultivation is left in a state of swamp.

[Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KASHMIR.

_April, 1848._]

There is no natural forest on any part of the open plain of Kashmir, and the cultivated trees are not numerous; the plane, poplar, and willow are all common, with numerous fruit-trees, chiefly walnuts, apples, apricots, cherries, and quinces. A mulberry is also common, the dried specimens of which are in no way distinguishable from those of the common white mulberry of Europe, with which I have compared it.

The vines are trained up the poplar-trees, rising to their very tops, and hanging down from their summits. A species of _Celtis_, which is commonly planted around the town, is, I think, the most tropical of all the Kashmirian trees, being common in the warmer valleys of the outer Himalayas; it is, however, I think, _Celtis australis_, L., a species which is a native of western Asia and eastern Europe, and appears to find its eastern limit in the Himalaya.

At the time of my arrival in Kashmir, the fruit-trees were in full blossom; the wild vegetation had, however, made very little progress, only the earliest plants being in flower. The spring flora was eminently European in character; not only the genera, but many of the species, being identical with those of our own island. _Cruciferae_ were the most abundant natural order; and, among many others, I collected _Draba verna_, _Capsella_, _Erysimum_, _Alliaria_, _Turritis glabra_, and European species of _Lepidium_, _Thlaspi_, _Alyssum_, and _Sisymbrium_. Other common forms were _Lycopsis arvensis_, _Lithospermum arvense_, _Myosotis collina_, _Scandix Pecten_, _Ranunculus Philonotis_, _Anagallis arvensis_, _Euphorbia Helioscopia_, and several species of _Veronica_. None of the annual plants were Indian forms, though a few of them were such as occur commonly in the plains in the cold season. The shrubby vegetation was very limited: a Juniper (_J. communis_), a _Cotoneaster_, _Rubus_, _Rosa Webbiana_, _Zizyphus_, _Elaeagnus_, _Daphne_, and two species of _Berberis_, were the most common. A few straggling trees of _Pinus excelsa_, which grew on the northern face of the low hill called Solomon's Throne, were the only pines which I saw in any part of the open valley.

FOOTNOTES:

[16] This juniper has a very extended range in alt.i.tude, being common in the drier parts of the Himalaya at elevations of 12-13,000 feet, and in some parts of Tibet, where it meets with a higher summer temperature, even as high as 14-15,000 feet. It is the _Juniperus excelsa_ of Wallich, and, so far as the point can be decided by dried specimens, seems identical with specimens in the Hookerian Herbarium, collected in Karabagh and Sakitschiwan by Szowitz, and communicated to Sir W. J. Hooker by Fischer. The Taurian specimens of _J. excelsa_ from Bieberstein are, however, a good deal different, and are perhaps only a form of _J. Sabina_.

[17] In Moorcroft's time, this place was a small village.

CHAPTER X.

Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with sh.e.l.ls and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pa.s.s -- Valley of Banahal -- Tropical vegetation -- Pa.s.s above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu.

During my stay in Kashmir, besides the necessary ceremonial of complimentary visits, my chief occupation was visiting the princ.i.p.al places in the vicinity. From my residence in the Sheikh Bagh I had easy access to the river, as well as to the ca.n.a.l by which it communicates with the lake. A broad road, three-quarters of a mile in length, shaded on both sides by very fine poplar-trees, runs from the eastern end of the town, parallel to this ca.n.a.l, as far as the hill called the Takht, at the foot of which is situated the pa.s.sage by which the lake discharges its waters into the ca.n.a.l. The weather was very favourable, the spring rains having terminated a day or two before my arrival. The Kashmiris are accomplished boatmen, a great part of the population living upon the water; and as most of the conspicuous objects around the town are only accessible by water, I gave pretty constant employment to a boat's crew whom I hired during my stay.

[Sidenote: LAKE OF KASHMIR.

_April, 1848._]

My first visit was to the lake, and to the celebrated gardens on its northern sh.o.r.e, which were the delight of the emperors who made Kashmir their retreat from the heat and cares of Delhi and Lah.o.r.e. The southern part of the lake is very shallow, and I sailed along narrow channels, which separated large patches of tall reeds, among which a very narrow-leaved _Typha_ and an _Arundo_ were the commonest plants.

Three or four species of _Potamogeton_ were abundant in the lake, just coming into flower, but most of the water-plants were only beginning to vegetate. I saw three or four flowers of a water-lily (_Nymphaea alba_), and could just recognize _Villarsia nymphaeoides_, _Menyanthes trifoliata_, and _Trapa_, all of which had been recorded by previous travellers as natives of Kashmir. I looked anxiously for _Nelumbium_, but saw no signs of it, except the withered capsules of the previous year, many of which I observed floating on the lake.

[Sidenote: GARDENS OF KASHMIR.

_April, 1848._]

The gardens of Shalimar and of Dilawer Khan rise in a succession of terraces from the margin of the lake. They are laid out in a stiff formal style, straight walks crossing one another at right angles, and are irrigated by means of straight water-courses, branching from a long ca.n.a.l which pa.s.ses down the centre, through a succession of ponds well built in masonry, and provided with artificial fountains, which are made to play on festivals and holidays. Pavilions of fine marble occupy the intersections of the princ.i.p.al walks. Magnificent plane-trees form the chief ornament of these gardens, which are now much neglected; straggling bushes and a wilderness of weeds occupying all the less conspicuous parts, while the main avenues alone are kept a little neat.

Although the chief beauty of the valley of Kashmir is undoubtedly the magnificent girdle of snowy mountains by which it is surrounded, the orchards and gardens, which are still numerous in the neighbourhood of the capital, are charming spots, and the more so from the contrast which they present with the barrenness of the surrounding country, and the absolute ugliness of the swamps in the centre of the valley. Nor should it be forgotten, when we compare the accounts given by early travellers with the impressions made upon us by the present appearance of the valley, that Kashmir is no longer in the same state as it was in the days of the emperors; a long continuance of misrule, under a succession of governors, whose only interest it has been to extract as much revenue as possible from the unfortunate inhabitants, having produced the only conceivable result, in abandoned cultivation, a diminished revenue, and an impoverished people.

On the 2nd of May I left the town of Kashmir, taking the route by the Banahal pa.s.s, towards Jamu and the plains of India. As my road lay for several days' journey along the course of the Jelam (or Behat, as it is always called in Kashmir), I engaged boats for the transport of my servants and baggage as far as Islamabad, travelling myself, however, generally by land and on foot, in order to see the country. My first halting-place was Pampur, seven miles from the town of Kashmir. After traversing the magnificent avenue of poplars, which runs north-west from the town, the road winds round the base of the Takht, the eastern face of which is only separated from the Jelam by a low swampy tract, a few hundred yards in breadth. East of the Takht a succession of rugged trap hills skirt the road, but beyond these the more distant mountains are evidently stratified. The road was gra.s.sy and quite level, and pa.s.sed through much cultivation, the young wheat and barley being dripping with a heavy dew which had fallen during the night. A scarlet poppy and _Adonis_ were common weeds among the corn.

[Sidenote: AVANTIPURA.

_May, 1848._]

Next day I travelled to Avantipura, seven miles further. The lacustrine formations, which had made their appearance on the bank of the river a little west of Pampur, continued to occur more or less constantly as we proceeded eastward, and the road traversed for some miles an elevated plain, quite bare of trees, and only partially cultivated, while the remainder was covered with gra.s.s. The surface of this plain was eroded by wide transverse valleys, formed by little streams which ran towards the Jelam: these were flat, and well cultivated, some of the wheat being already in ear. On the highest parts of the platform the cultivation of saffron is carried on, in beds four or five feet square, separated by deep ditches or furrows from one another. The plant, which flowers in autumn, was now in full leaf.

[Sidenote: ASCENT OF WASTERWAN.

_May, 1848._]

Behind Avantipura lies a high mountain, called Wasterwan, rising to a height of 10,000 feet above the sea by the determination of Jacquemont, or 4700 feet above the plain. It projects forward in an almost isolated manner, though it is connected by a narrow ridge behind with the general ma.s.s of the range on the north side of the valley. On the 4th of May I ascended to the summit of this mountain, which I found to be entirely formed of trap, partly h.o.m.ogeneous, and partly amygdaloidal. Several gigantic _Umbelliferae_, already in full flower, were abundant in the lower parts of the open valley by which I ascended. One of these was _Prangos pabularia_, which formed dense thickets four or five feet high. From this open valley I got upon a sharp ridge, gra.s.sy below but very rocky above, along which I proceeded almost to the top; but being stopped by a precipice, I was obliged to enter a narrow rocky ravine, by ascending which I managed to gain the summit, which was gra.s.sy and rounded, and covered with a few patches of snow. On the northern face of the hill snow still lay in great quant.i.ty. The view from the top was very fine, the day being in every respect favourable: the greater part of the valley of Kashmir was seen spread out far below, and a complete circle of snowy mountains bounded the horizon. The mountains to the north were seen to be distinctly stratified.

The commonest plants on the ascent were a beautiful rose-coloured _Oxytropis_, and a tulip (_T. stellata_), the flowers of which, when fully expanded, spread out like a star. A few trees of _Pinus excelsa_ were seen on the upper part of the ridge; and in a hollow close to the top there were about a dozen yew-trees. On the summit, though the vegetation was not generally alpine, most of the plants of the middle zone extending to the very top, there were many pretty little spring flowers, which did not extend far down. A _Primula_, _Pedicularis_, _Gentiana_, _Leontopodium_, _Corydalis_, and _Callianthemum_, were all in flower. On the northern slope of the mountain, a wood of deciduous trees, still bare of leaves, commenced a few yards below the summit.

At first the trees were all birch, but lower down a cherry and maple were mixed with it; the former with young leaves, and just-formed racemes; the latter only recognizable by the last year's leaves, which strewed the ground. A few horse-chesnut trees were also seen near the top.

[Sidenote: ANCIENT CITY OF AVANTIPURA.

_May, 1848._]

The neighbourhood of the village of Avantipura is one of the most interesting places in which the lacustrine strata of the Kashmir valley can be studied, as there is distinct evidence of the existence in that place of deposits much more recent than those which extend over the whole plain, and which were therefore formed when the valley was occupied by a large lake. Avantipura was formerly the site of a very large town, the capital, I believe, of the kingdom; built in the shape of an amphitheatre in a deep semicircular bay, enclosed by two low spurs, which project from the mountain Wasterwan, which rises immediately behind.

The ruins of the ancient town are still visible, consisting of heaps of stones, some of immense size, indicative of large buildings, but none of them showing the slightest traces by which the shape or structure of the edifices could be determined. These ruins extend all round the deep recess in the mountains, and terminate below quite abruptly, without any apparent cause, in a perfectly horizontal line along the mountain-side. The mountain behind is an isolated peak, furrowed by numerous ravines, which are dry except immediately after rain. The place would therefore appear singularly inappropriate as the site of a large city, were there not, I think, sufficient evidence that a lake existed in front of the town, the surface of which was on a level with the horizontal line by which the ruins are abruptly terminated.

[Sidenote: CLAY, WITH BROKEN POTTERY.

_May, 1848._]

The ruins of the ancient city stand upon the lacustrine clay of the Kashmir plain, and are therefore posterior in age to the period when the valley was occupied by one large lake. Immediately in front of the ancient ruins, between them and the small modern village of Avantipura, which is situated on the banks of the Jelam, there occur beds of fine brown-coloured clay, containing in great quant.i.ty fragments of pottery, with here and there small pieces of charcoal and bone. In one place on the bank of a small ravine, which then probably carried a streamlet into the lake, I found the clay to contain, mixed with the broken pottery, numerous sh.e.l.ls, some fresh-water and some land species, and all the same as are common at the present day in the river Jelam, or on the gra.s.sy hill-sides in the valley. The place where these sh.e.l.ls occur is fifty or sixty feet above the river.

The appearance of this evidently very modern deposit is exactly that which would no doubt be exhibited, were the present lake close to the city of Kashmir dried up, and a section of its bed exposed. This lake contains abundance of sh.e.l.ls, and in the neighbourhood of the town it is made the receptacle of refuse of every kind, broken pottery being particularly plentiful. In shallow places in the river, close to the town of Bijbehara, a similar deposit is acc.u.mulating, valves of a _Cyrena_ being found to some depth in the fine mud, mixed with broken pots, charcoal, bones, and other refuse.

[Sidenote: TEMPLE IMBEDDED.

IN LACUSTRINE CLAY.

_May, 1848._]

The most remarkable fact connected with this very recent lacustrine deposit is, that the ruins of an ancient temple exist on the plain above the Jelam, a little west of the modern village, partially buried in the clay. The upper parts of two temples, resembling in all respects the ruins on the elevated platform at Martand, near Islamabad, stand on the open plain, not far from the river, but perhaps twenty feet above its level, and certainly far below the level to which the clay containing pottery rises on the hill-sides. One of the temples is quite in ruins, the immense blocks of which it is built being piled confusedly on one another. The beautiful colonnade (exactly like that at Martand) by which it is surrounded, is evidently quite uninjured in any way; but it is entirely buried under the lacustrine clay, except a very small portion, consisting of three pillars, which were exposed by Major Cunningham in 1847. These three pillars may be seen in a cavity under the level of the present surface of the ground, and the clay in which they were imbedded contains fragments of pottery in profusion.

If these temples (the date of which I believe is approximately known to antiquarians) were contemporaneous with the ancient town, they must have been buried in the lacustrine silt at some period not very long subsequent to their erection, if I am right in supposing a lake to have existed at the same time with the town. Probably, therefore, they are anterior in age to the town, as they are imbedded in such ma.s.ses of pottery as could only have been acc.u.mulated in the neighbourhood of a very dense population. Their present appearance, I think, helps to explain the nature and origin of the many lakes or marshy depressions which occur in all parts of the valley. It appears evident that at Avantipura, at some period subsequent to the building of the temples, a subsidence of the ground must have taken place during one of the many earthquakes which are well known to have convulsed the Kashmir valley. This subsidence, which must have been partial, and not co-extensive with the valley, converted the ground on which the temples stood into a lake. A fresh subsidence, or the gradual wearing away of the incoherent clay strata lower down the river, must at last have drained the little lake, and left the country round Avantipura in the state in which we now see it. Even now a marsh partly under water during the spring months extends from Avantipura for several miles up the river.

The occurrence of repeated partial subsidences in various parts of the Kashmir plain appears to me the only way in which the general appearance of the country can be explained. The abrupt, broad, and shallow depressions between the different platforms are seemingly much too extensive to have been formed by the trifling streamlets which now run along them, without the a.s.sistance of volcanic action. The lakes, too, are deeper than the present level of the river, a circ.u.mstance only explicable in an alluvial country on some such supposition; and as it is well known that violent earthquakes have at intervals convulsed this valley for many centuries, this mode of explaining the phenomena becomes highly probable.

[Sidenote: BIJBEHARA.

_May, 1848._]

[Sidenote: ISLAMABAD.

_May, 1848._]