Trial By Ice Part 16

At Secretary Robeson's request, the two surgeons general affixed their conclusions to the report: We, the undersigned, were present by request of the Honorable Secretary of the Navy, at the examination of Dr. Emil Bessel, in regard to the cruise of the Polaris Polaris and the circ.u.mstances connected with the illness and death of Captain Hall. We listened to his testimony with great care and put to him such questions as we deemed necessary. and the circ.u.mstances connected with the illness and death of Captain Hall. We listened to his testimony with great care and put to him such questions as we deemed necessary.

From the circ.u.mstances and symptoms detailed by him, and comparing them with the medical testimony of all the witnesses, we are conclusively of the opinion that Captain Hall died from natural causes, viz., apoplexy; and that the treatment of the case by Dr. Bessel was the best practicable under the circ.u.mstances.

That was it. Bessel, the chosen one, was above reproach. Bud-dington, for all his faults, was a civilian and could not be court-martialed by the navy. Tyson and his complaints were dismissed as the rambings of a malcontent. The poor performance of the crew? Well, they had suffered enough.

The board recommended that no action be taken against any of the members of the expedition. No further investigations ought to be undertaken, they wrote. To the relief of all the bureaucrats, the case was closed.

All the dirt was swept under the rug. But it made a sizable b.u.mp, ore that refused to flatten out of view.

The public's taste for Arctic discovery, for the brave men who risked their lives in that region, and especially for more details of what had happened to the Polaris Polaris remained unsatisfied. Already books about the disaster were in the works. The specter of the doomed ship continued to loom over the whole affair. Instead of being called the United States polar expedition, everyone referred to the exploration as the remained unsatisfied. Already books about the disaster were in the works. The specter of the doomed ship continued to loom over the whole affair. Instead of being called the United States polar expedition, everyone referred to the exploration as the Polaris Polaris expedition. expedition.

Charles Francis Hall was elevated to the status of a martyr. His only known photograph was copied and transposed onto various lithographs. In the first book published about the Polaris, Polaris, Hall's image appears as the frontispiece, sharing a page with a photograph of the saintly Dr. Elisha Kent Kane. Hall's image appears as the frontispiece, sharing a page with a photograph of the saintly Dr. Elisha Kent Kane.

The f rst book to hit the bookstalls tried its best to put a good face on the fiasco. William H. Cunnington appended The Polar The Polar Exploration onto Epes Sargent's onto Epes Sargent's The Wonders of the Arctic World, The Wonders of the Arctic World, published by the Philadelphia Book Company in 1873, just months after the rescue and hearings. published by the Philadelphia Book Company in 1873, just months after the rescue and hearings.

"From Official and Trustworthy Sources," the subt.i.tle said. But no mention was made of the divisiveness that had rocked the expedition. Little was said of HalPs ranting about poison and nothing about Buddington's attraction to liquor. One example demonstrates the book's tone: It is known to our readers that when news of Captain Hall's death was first received in this country the grief and consternation in the public mind was intensified by rumors that he had been poisoned. As ill reports like ill news travel apace, it was soon in everybody's mouth that malice, engendered by jealousy or by distaste of his rule, had destroyed the daring and enterprising navigator. Secretary Robeson, with his characteristic promptness, determined to sift these vague charges, and fearlessly to bring the foul deed home to its perpetrator, or to prove their falsity and relieve the absent from their taint. He saw that a thorough investigation alone could effect this....

The cover-up had begun.

The authors quoted from the official report: "We reach the unanimous opinion that the death of Captain Hall resulted naturally, from disease, without fault on the part of any one." Grandly Sargent and Cunnington followed that with a sweeping paragraph: Thus, the vague rumors, and the more positive charges built on them, were swept away, and the people of the country, while sincerely mourning their eminent fellow American and heartily deploring his death, were relieved from the state of excitement that his supposed murder had naturally induced.

The next book out was not so kind. Arctic Experiences, Containing Capt. George E. Tyson's Wonderful Drift on the Ice-Floe, Arctic Experiences, Containing Capt. George E. Tyson's Wonderful Drift on the Ice-Floe, edited by E. Vale Blake, was published in 1874 by Harper & Brothers in New York. The publisher that had caught the first photographic image of the Tyson party saw the need for a more informative treat ment. edited by E. Vale Blake, was published in 1874 by Harper & Brothers in New York. The publisher that had caught the first photographic image of the Tyson party saw the need for a more informative treat ment.

Relying heavily on George Tyson's journal, the book widely disseminated the navigator's bitter accusations against Budding-ton, Meyer, and Bessel. Unlike Cunnington's work, Blake included testimony from the hearing, notes, and Tyson's journals. On December 22, 1873, two days before testifying, Chaplain Bryan had answered a letter from Blake requesting his thoughts on the number of people who had climbed the mast to look for Tyson's group. Sadly, Bryan answered with candor: "During the winter I greatly regretted that I did not go up the masthead myself, but I never had an idea that I would have seen them."

Blake's book fanned the embers of the persistent stories, causing them to burst into flames. The fact that the Geographic Society of Paris awarded the Gold Medal of the Roquette Foundation posthumously to Charles Francis Hall did little to dispel the rumors. Finally the U.S. government moved to quash the whole affair. It comm ssioned Rear Adm. C. H. Davis of the Naval Observatory to write the official version of the event. Published by the Government Printing Office, the Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U.S. Ship Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U.S. Ship Polaris appeared in 1876 and sought to be the definitive work on what had happened. To those alert enough to read the t.i.tle page, the words "edited under the direction of the Hon. G. M. Robeson, Secretary of the Navy" must have proved troubling. Polaris appeared in 1876 and sought to be the definitive work on what had happened. To those alert enough to read the t.i.tle page, the words "edited under the direction of the Hon. G. M. Robeson, Secretary of the Navy" must have proved troubling.

Davis's 686-page book, bound with a gilt cover, amounted to a ma.s.sive whitewash. Mesmerizing the reader with day-by-day minutiae, the admiral glosses over the conflicts and shortcomings of the expedition. Testimony, journals, and even the official inquiries are edited to present the most favorable picture. Viewed through Davis's rose-colored gla.s.ses, the Polaris Polaris expedition consisted of happy, singing comrades who had suffered bad luck yet went on in the best possible tradition of the navy. expedition consisted of happy, singing comrades who had suffered bad luck yet went on in the best possible tradition of the navy.

Nothing could have been further from the truth. But the "official report" achieved its desired goal. The disaster of the Polaris Polaris expedition gradually faded from people's minds. expedition gradually faded from people's minds.

1968.

Nowhere along the coast of Greenland have I seen such a desolate strip of sh.o.r.e as the site of Polaris House and its neighborhood, and the first glance shows that the selection of the site was not a matter of choice, but of the direst necessity.-ROBERT EDWIN PEARY, 1898 Beneath a threatening sky, four men stood beside the pile of dirt and willow-laced stones that marked the grave of Charles Francis Hall. The time was August 1968, three years and three months shy of a century since the coffin of the commander of the Polaris Polaris expedition had been lowered into the frozen ground. Their presence was no mere coincidence. To stand on that desolate strip of rocky scree had taken months of hard work, research, and perseverance. The leader of this tiny group was Charles C. Loomis, professor of English at Dartmouth College and a renowned Arctic scholar with four previous explorations to the frozen North under his belt. His love of photography had led him to the Arctic, prompted by his filming of musk oxen on Alaska's Nunivak Island. Loomis was preparing a biography of Charles Francis Hall under a Smithsonian postdoctoral fellowship. expedition had been lowered into the frozen ground. Their presence was no mere coincidence. To stand on that desolate strip of rocky scree had taken months of hard work, research, and perseverance. The leader of this tiny group was Charles C. Loomis, professor of English at Dartmouth College and a renowned Arctic scholar with four previous explorations to the frozen North under his belt. His love of photography had led him to the Arctic, prompted by his filming of musk oxen on Alaska's Nunivak Island. Loomis was preparing a biography of Charles Francis Hall under a Smithsonian postdoctoral fellowship.

On their arrival the previous morning, a windless day and clear blue sky had greeted the group. The single-engine Otter leaped over the foothills ringing the plain and descended in widening arcs over the ice-free blue waters of Hall Basin. Following the scalloped sh.o.r.eline of Thank G.o.d Harbor, the aircraft touched down on a relatively level site a mile below the wreckage of Emil Bessel's observatory. The large tundra tires bounced and scrunched over the rough shale, and the radial engine sputtered to a halt.

Time and clear flying weather are especially precious to every bush pilot. A storm might loom over the horizon at any moment, flipping the plane or forcing an unwanted stay. Hurriedly the pa.s.sengers unloaded their gear and stepped back. The plane's engine coughed to life, belching a cloud of oily smoke. Revving the engine, rhe pilot, W. W. Phipps, spun the nose into the light wind and took off, trailing a cloud of glacial silt and pebbles. Phipps would return in two weeks, weather permitting. The men were on their own.

As Loomis watched their link to civilization vanish into a silver speck, the utter and terrible isolation of this place struck him. One minute they had been flying b.u.mpily along, encased in a marvel of modern aeronautical engineering, and the next instant the four of them were standing alone on a desolate plain. Stretching as far as their eyes could see was a steely ocean and a brooding umber land that killed humans with total indifference.

Half-dazed, the four men pitched camp and wandered about the plain. They walked to the ruins of BessePs observatory. The four wooden walls built by Chester and Coffin lay shattered and blown down as if ripped apart by a bomb blast. The Arctic winds had flattened the unwanted building, but ice and snow had not destroyed the traces of that fateful party. Instead, the cold had preserved things that would have vanished long ago in warmer climates Wandering about the wreck of the observatory, the four stepped back a century in time. The same bra.s.s nails, ice saw, cast-iron stoves, shards of gla.s.s, and sc.r.a.ps of sailcloth abandoned by the original Polaris Polaris expedition lay at their feet. In their hands they held objects that men long dead had touched. One of Loomis's companions, ex-marine Tom Gignoux, recently back from a tour of duty in Vietnam, uncovered a wooden board on which Sgt. William Cross of the doomed Greely expedition had carved his name before the land killed him. Gignoux recognized the round ice b.a.l.l.s scattered about the ruins for what they wereice grenades, b.a.l.l.s of ice packed with gunpowder, constructed long ago by the crew of the expedition lay at their feet. In their hands they held objects that men long dead had touched. One of Loomis's companions, ex-marine Tom Gignoux, recently back from a tour of duty in Vietnam, uncovered a wooden board on which Sgt. William Cross of the doomed Greely expedition had carved his name before the land killed him. Gignoux recognized the round ice b.a.l.l.s scattered about the ruins for what they wereice grenades, b.a.l.l.s of ice packed with gunpowder, constructed long ago by the crew of the Polaris Polaris in their futile attempt to blast the ship free of the ice. The black powder retained its explosive properties in the cold climate. in their futile attempt to blast the ship free of the ice. The black powder retained its explosive properties in the cold climate.

Upon their arrival, the Arctic looked benign. Overnight its mood changed. Pewter clouds scudded overhead, so low that they appeared touchable. The sea took its cue from the darkened sky and turned leaden.

Unlike the spa.r.s.e numbers of explorers who had pa.s.sed Hall's grave, these modern visitors came to open it. After nearly one hundred years of questions, these men sought answers. During his research for Hall's biography, Loomis was troubled by the hasty judgment by the Navy Department's board of inquiry and its disregard of conflicting testimony. Studying the journals and transcripts gave Loomis no strong feeling that Hall had been murdered. He would later write in his book, Weird and Tragic Sh.o.r.es: Weird and Tragic Sh.o.r.es: My conclusion was, not that Hall certainly had been murdered, not even that he probably had been murdered, but only that murder was at least possible and plausible. The conclusion of the Board of Inquiry that he died of "natural causes, viz, apoplexy," also was possible and plausible, but it had been reached hastily and only by ignoring much of the evidence that the Board itself had wheedled out of the witnesses. Secretary Robeson had been under considerable pressure to end the investigation; scandal was in the making.

The unanswered questions prompted Loomis to seek an autopsy.

Reaching this point had not been easy. Flying to the remote site aboard a single-engine Otter, they quickly crossed the straits that had baffled so many before them. But surmounting the miles of red tape that had blocked their travel took months of dealing with the Danish Ministry for Greenland. Putting forth the argument that an autopsy would rightly have been ordered if Hall had died under suspicious circ.u.mstances in modern times, Loomis requested permission to visit the grave and disinter Hall's body.

The Danes referred Loomis to Count Eigel Knuth, an archaeologist and Arctic explorer who advised Denmark's Ministry for Greenland on proposed projects in its northern region. Knuth found the idea of digging up Hall's grave, which he had visited and considered "a hallowed place," totally repugnant. Only after flying to Copenhagen to meet with Knuth could Loomis change the old explorer's mind. Loomis promised to return the grave to exactly the condition in which he found it.

Now he stood beside the grave with William Barrett, Tom Gig-noux, and Dr. Franklin Paddock, a pathologist. Paddock would perform the autopsy.

Things change slowly in the Arctic, and they hoped Captain Hall's body would speak from his grave. The recent studies on lead poisoning of Sir John Franklin's party gave reason to be optimistic. The frozen and well-preserved bodies of Royal Marine W. Braine and seamen John Hartnell and John Torrington, unearthed on Beechey Island in Lancaster Sound, provided useful information as to their deaths. Those men had died in 1846, long before Hall.

With some trepidation Loomis watched as Gignoux unroofed the shallow grave. Encased in ice, the Arctic retained its grip on the dead man. With luck the body would be perfectly preserved. The pine coffin appeared intact, even though the top was almost level with the ground. As the professor watched, he recalled the men of Hall's command laboring in the long night to carve the shallow grave out of frozen soil. Gignoux's task proved just as daunting. The layers of ice forced him to dig and shovel hunched over the coffin.

Suddenly the fetid odor of decay rose from the coffin. Loomis felt his heart sink. The mound of dirt had protected the pine wood, but the summer sun had melted the permafrost above the lid. Would the shallow nature of the grave defeat them? Was their quest in vain? Had Hall rotted in his tomb until only his bones remained? Loomis worried.

Gignoux's shovel caught a corner of the lid, splintering off a portion. Light fell upon white stars sewn on a field of blue. For the first time in almost a century, sunlight played upon an American flag that had flown when Ulysses Grant was president.

Loomis pried off the rest of the lid. The American flag covered Hall's face and the upper half of his body. Milky ice, melted and refrozen countless times over the century, encased the lower part of the body and held the back in its firm grip. Incongruously two stocking-covered feet poked through the sheet of ice.

Folding back the flag, Loomis studied Hall's face. Exposure to thawing and decay had altered the once-strong features. The robust beard and dark hair were gone, replaced by token wisps of brittle hair. Caught between the processes of mummification and decay, empty eye sockets and a sardonic grin greeted them. Minerals in the water had tanned what skin remained into a rich mahogany. In addition the dye from the flag had stained portions of the explorer's face blue, while the weave of the cloth textured the skin. To Loomis the face reminded him of a "Rouault portrait."

Performing the autopsy proved next to impossible. Frozen into the land he loved, Hall's coffin and body resisted all inspection. In a way his body had become an inseparable part of the land, as his spirit had. Wisely the men decided not to totally exhume the body. Working bent over the grave, Paddock found the internal organs totally dissolved into a frozen soup of ice. Unlike the bodies examined from Franklin's expedition, no viscera could be studied or tested. No stomach or intestines could be sampled for traces of poison or infection. No lungs could be examined for pneumonia or tuberculosis. And certainly nothing remained of the brain to tell whether it had suffered the stroke that Emil Bessel diagnosed. In despair the pathologist collected sc.r.a.ps of hair and a single fingernail.

With infinite care born of respect, the men restored the grave to its original state. It bothered Loomis that they could not avoid stripping away the ground willow that Hayes and Sieman had planted so long ago. Loomis himself replaced Noah Hayes's crowbar at its crooked angle.

During the two-week wait for their pilot, the specter of Captain Hall seemed to haunt them. In long walks they found themselves avoiding the grave site. The patterned face lingered in their thoughts. During that time the Arctic teased them with its changing weather, just as it had the men of the Polaris. Polaris. The clear Hall Basin abruptly filled with ice and icebergs. Ghostly fogs came and went. The clear Hall Basin abruptly filled with ice and icebergs. Ghostly fogs came and went.

On the group's return home, the fingernail and hair were sent to the Toronto Center of Forensic Sciences for neutron-activation testing. No mention was made of the specifics of the sample, so the center had no idea who "C. F. Hall" was or the circ.u.mstances surrounding his death. Using neutrons to bombard the atoms in a test specimen causes that material's nuclei to become unstable. In the process those unstable nuclei decay, emitting electrons and protons. The half- ife of that decay and the type of particles emitted are specific for different atomic elements. Iron, silver, gold, and a.r.s.enic all give off unique patterns.

The hair and fingernails of living subjects readily take up a.r.s.enic, making those tissues accurate markers of a.r.s.enic poisoning. The problem used to be the need for large quant.i.ties of tissue for a.n.a.lysis. Neutron-activation testing of minute quant.i.ties changed all that. Using neutron-activation a.n.a.lysis to search for a.r.s.enic received much publicity in the 1960s, when Sten Forshufvud used it to prove that Napoleon Bonaparte had been systematically poisoned with a.r.s.enic. By the mid-1960s the timing of the poisoning could also be determined by a.n.a.lyzing the deposits of the poison along a single strand of human hair. Each 5 millimeters of hair length represents fifteen days in the subject's life, while fingernails grow at 0.7 millimeter per week.

The report from the Toronto Center shocked everyone. It read, "an intake of considerable amounts of a.r.s.enic by "an intake of considerable amounts of a.r.s.enic by C. C. E Hall in the last two vjeeks of life," E Hall in the last two vjeeks of life,"

Hall's fingernail told the story. The tip contained 24.6 parts per million of a.r.s.enic, while the base of the nail contained 76.7 parts per million, an enormous amount. a.r.s.enic was commonly used in the nineteenth century in various medicines. Fowler's Solution (pota.s.sium a.r.s.enate) was a common remedy for skin eruptions and fevers, and arsphenamine was the drug of choice for syphilis. Loomis notes," 'a.r.s.enious acid,' comments the Dispensatory of the United States Dispensatory of the United States of 1875 in one of its longest entries, 'has been exhibited in a variety of diseases.'" Certainly a.r.s.enic compounds were among the medical supplies aboard the of 1875 in one of its longest entries, 'has been exhibited in a variety of diseases.'" Certainly a.r.s.enic compounds were among the medical supplies aboard the Polaris. Polaris. But there is no record of the pious HaH's ever having been treated for syphilis, and the only doc.u.mented medications and injections he received in the last two weeks of his life came from the hand of Emil Bessel. The doctor, for all his careful records, never mentioned using any a.r.s.enicals. But there is no record of the pious HaH's ever having been treated for syphilis, and the only doc.u.mented medications and injections he received in the last two weeks of his life came from the hand of Emil Bessel. The doctor, for all his careful records, never mentioned using any a.r.s.enicals.

Also a.r.s.enic was found in high concentrations of 22.0 parts per million in the soil surrounding the grave site. Some might have migrated into the body over the years. Prior treatments and the soil might account for the high levels at the end of the fingernail, but nothing other than ingestion or injection could have produced the extremely high levels found at the base of the nail. And such high levels would have to produce distressing symptoms.

After nearly one hundred years, Charles Francis Hall had cried out from his grave. He had been poisoned.

Suddenly all the signs and symptoms at odds with a stroke fall into place. The too-sweet taste of the coffee, the intense burning of Hall's stomach, the vomiting, difficulty swallowing, dementia, and paralysis are all consistent with acute a.r.s.enic poisoning. Even the curious blisters about Hall's mouth are late signs.

But who would have poisoned Hall? And for what reason? The cook and steward initially handled the coffee cup, but they had no reason to poison their commander. Certainly Buddington and Meyer had their differences with Captain Hall and might have handed him the poisoned coffee. However, those two men did not constantly attend Hall during his illness. No one could seriously suspect Tookoolito. Her loyalty to Hall was well demonstrated by her pledge to preserve his writing desk. Despite her efforts to save the contents of the desk, nothing emerged from Hall's papers to shed any new light on his murder. The faithful Morton also is above suspicion.

That leaves only one person with the knowledge and the ready access to a.r.s.enic. That same person was frequently by the stricken man's side, administering potions and injecting solutions of his white powder. What better way to poison a person than openly, under the guise of treating him as a patient? With all his prestigious degrees, no one would doubt Emil Bessel's treatment plan. Bessel must have used a.r.s.enic from the ship's supplies. Clever criminals commonly used a.r.s.enious oxide, which is odorless and tasteless. That substance would definitely not be in the medical supplies. The sweet, metallic taste in the coffee suggests that another a.r.s.enic compound was used.

Now, too, Emil Bessel's early prognosis that Hall would never recover makes more sense. The Prussian physician was less a skilled diagnostician than a clever murderer. He made sure his nemesis would not survive, but it took him a second try. The hearty nature of Hall's physique required finishing the job by lethal injections. With all the attention drawn to the strange-tasting coffee and the sudden onset of symptoms after Hall drank it, Bessel probably decided to switch to injecting the a.r.s.enic to reduce the incidence of stomach symptoms.

Emil Bessel's inconsistent actions point toward his guilt. When the first cup of coffee had been served to Hall, Bessel insisted he was in the observatory, but Morton and Mauch thought Bessel was present when Hall drank his coffee. The fact that the doctor refused to perform an initial emetic suggests he wanted the poisonous contents of the coffee to remain in Hall's stomach. The later purgatives ensured that the poison would travel the length of the man's digestive trace and would be maximally absorbed rather than vomited out. When Hall rejected his medicine, Bessel's refusal to allow either Buddington or Bryan to sample the potion raises the question of whether the mixture was harmful. What reason had Bessel for continuing his injections of "quinine," which he said were to lower the wild'y high temperature, once Hall's temperature had returned to normal? Hall rapidly recovered when he rejected Bessel's treatment. Only after Bryan convinced the captain to place himself under the coctor's care once again did the fatal relapse occur.

For a physician who had hovered over his patient, why did Bessel suddenly race to his observatory when Morton notified him that Hall had taken a severe turn for the worse? Was he trying to establish an alibi?

Bessel's actions surely troubled the examiners. Yet they refused to beliee the evidence. Skirting the obvious, they couched their questions so as to get their fears refuted.

"Die you not think there was any difficulty between Captain Hall and any of the scientific party, that would be an inducement for them to do anything toward injuring him?" the board of inquiry had asked George Tyson.

"No, sir," Tyson answered quickly. But then he reflected and replied, "unless a man were a monster he could not do any such thing as that."

What were Bessel's motives? Surely his intense dislike for Hall was enough. As Noah Hayes noted, "the one long night" went far to destroy "moral responsibility." A grain of hatred grows in the Arctic darkness to monstrous proportions. Jealousy, envy, a desire to lead the expeditionall add to the possible reasons. In France a.r.s.enic was known as "the inheritance powder," and Emil Bessel's actions prove that he felt himself best suited to inherit overall command of the expedition. But first he had to create the vacancy. There is no doubt that Bessel underestimated the physical requirements and stamina needed to reach the North Pole by sled. Most members of the expedition did. Since Bessel already considered himself superior to Hall as a scientist, it is easy to surmise that the German doctor felt he would also be a better explorer. The glory of reaching the North Pole would be added to his scientific achievements. Only Charles Francis Hall stood in his way.

Possibly Bessel was working under orders from Bismarck to sabotage the American effort. Did Germany feel threatened by the prospect of an American presence at the North Pole and by closer ties between Denmark and the United States? A strong ally like the United States backing Denmark would not suit Bismarck's goals. Killing Hall guaranteed failure of the expedition and weakened the American presence in the Arctic. In those days an American flag planted at the North Pole would have laid claim to the area for the United States. Looking across the globe, one sees that the North Pole is dangerously close to Germany's North Sea. No doc.u.ments could be found to substantiate a Prussian plot. But Germany had sought to alter America's actions before this and would attempt to do so in the years to come. The use of Hessian soldiers during the American Revolution and the Zimmerman telegram promising Mexico the return of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico are two examples, along with two world wars.

Nevertheless, Bessel's ongoing loyalty to Germany demonstrated that he had not transferred his allegiance to the United States. His first telegrams on being saved were to Germany. His first publication of his scientific findings from the Polaris Polaris expedition was also in German, and he was in no hurry to produce an English version. Eventually he would return to die in the fatherland. Clearly Bessel's allegiance lay somewhere other than the United Statesbut that alone is not enough to convict a man. However, given the presence of motive, opportunity, and in all likelihood access to the substance that killed Hall, Bessel is the most logical choice. expedition was also in German, and he was in no hurry to produce an English version. Eventually he would return to die in the fatherland. Clearly Bessel's allegiance lay somewhere other than the United Statesbut that alone is not enough to convict a man. However, given the presence of motive, opportunity, and in all likelihood access to the substance that killed Hall, Bessel is the most logical choice.

Was Buddington a willing or unknowing accomplice? His actions after Hall's death suggest that he knew or suspected more than he let on. In E. Vale Blake's Arctic Experiences, Arctic Experiences, George Tyson's diary alludes to "an astonishing proposition" made to him by Buddington. Tyson told this to Captain Bartlett while aboard the George Tyson's diary alludes to "an astonishing proposition" made to him by Buddington. Tyson told this to Captain Bartlett while aboard the Tigress. Tigress. Tyson accused Buddington of proposing that the two men take the Tyson accused Buddington of proposing that the two men take the Polaris Polaris south into heavily traveled whaling waters and scuttle the ship. According to Buddington, they could then winter on land in i elative safety until spring. After being rescued by whalers, the two could collect their pay and avoid any risks. When the south into heavily traveled whaling waters and scuttle the ship. According to Buddington, they could then winter on land in i elative safety until spring. After being rescued by whalers, the two could collect their pay and avoid any risks. When the Tigress's Tigress's owner pa.s.sed this information on to the American Consulate in Scotland, he was advised to keep it secret. Fifty years after the rescue, the family of the owner of the owner pa.s.sed this information on to the American Consulate in Scotland, he was advised to keep it secret. Fifty years after the rescue, the family of the owner of the Tigress Tigress repeated the story. repeated the story.

One other event raises the question of Buddington's complicity with Bessel. On June 4, 1873, when prospects of his two boats' being rescued by sealing ships grew certain, Captain Buddington became deathly ill after eating supper. Davis notes, "Captain Buddington suddenly became very sick, and for a time there was doubt of his recovery. ..." No one else got sick, and they had all eaten the same hot soup made from captured auks. Buddington's abrupt, severe illness to the point that he was expected to die, followed by an equally rapid recovery, raises the question of another poisoning attempt.

Was Emil Bessel trying to tie up loose ends? Had he tried to poison Buddington because he knew too much? Both men took that answer to their graves.

What we do know is that what came to be called the Polaris Polaris expedition was beset by problems from its inception. Polar exploration is a daunting task, and the toll that the natural elements exact or human beings is heavy. Charles Francis Hall and the men of the expedition was beset by problems from its inception. Polar exploration is a daunting task, and the toll that the natural elements exact or human beings is heavy. Charles Francis Hall and the men of the Polaris Polaris not only had to face the worst that the implacable Arctic had to offerbiting winds, fierce cold, and spirit-numbing darkness. They also engaged in a battle with the darker parts of their own fragile human nature as they explored the other side of heroism That all but one of them returned from that journey is a remarkable testament both to the whims of fate and to the raw power of human will. not only had to face the worst that the implacable Arctic had to offerbiting winds, fierce cold, and spirit-numbing darkness. They also engaged in a battle with the darker parts of their own fragile human nature as they explored the other side of heroism That all but one of them returned from that journey is a remarkable testament both to the whims of fate and to the raw power of human will.

AFTERMATH.

In 1874, a year after the Polaris Polaris inquiry closed, a British admiral wrote, "The navy needs some action to wake it up from the sloth of routine and save it from the canker of prolonged peace." In a direct reference to Charles Francis Hall's grave, he continued, "The rude wooden monument to the intrepid American, standing lone in the Polar solitude, is at the same time a grand memorial, a trophy, inquiry closed, a British admiral wrote, "The navy needs some action to wake it up from the sloth of routine and save it from the canker of prolonged peace." In a direct reference to Charles Francis Hall's grave, he continued, "The rude wooden monument to the intrepid American, standing lone in the Polar solitude, is at the same time a grand memorial, a trophy, and a challenge" and a challenge"

Accordingly the Royal Navy launched the Alert Alert and the and the Discovery Discovery under Capt. George Nares, with Captain H. F. Stephenson second in command, to a.s.sault the North Pole. In the spirit of cooperation, Secretary Robeson offered the British expedition the use of the American stores of coal and supplies stockpiled at Disko and Thank G.o.d Harbor. The British gratefully accepted. under Capt. George Nares, with Captain H. F. Stephenson second in command, to a.s.sault the North Pole. In the spirit of cooperation, Secretary Robeson offered the British expedition the use of the American stores of coal and supplies stockpiled at Disko and Thank G.o.d Harbor. The British gratefully accepted.

While cohesion of their party was far superior to that of the Polaris, Polaris, the Nares expedition fared little better. To guide them, they enlisted the services of Hans, the Inuit, by now a legend in his own time. Retracing Hall's path, Captain Nares stopped at Buddington's winter camp, where "some boxes of books, instruments, etc. were found." Making no attempt to bring them back, the British pushed on. The the Nares expedition fared little better. To guide them, they enlisted the services of Hans, the Inuit, by now a legend in his own time. Retracing Hall's path, Captain Nares stopped at Buddington's winter camp, where "some boxes of books, instruments, etc. were found." Making no attempt to bring them back, the British pushed on. The Discovery, Discovery, under Stephenson, wintered at Lady Franklin Sound, opposite Thank G.o.d Harbor, while Nares, in the under Stephenson, wintered at Lady Franklin Sound, opposite Thank G.o.d Harbor, while Nares, in the Alert, Alert, beat northward. beat northward.

On their way north, the British pa.s.sed through Polaris Bay. The ruined remains of Bessel's observatory greeted them in mute testimony. A coil of wire, an ice saw, and the tattered remnants of a canvas tent littered the field. The weathered piece of door marking the head of Hall's grave rose some distance away. Noah Hayes's crowbar maintained its lonely vigil about a foot from the head board. Ttie ground willow that Sieman had planted covered the mound.

On May 13 Captain Stephenson raised an American flag over the grave and erected a bra.s.s plaque at the head of the mound. Brought from England, the tablet read: Sacred to the Memory of CAPTAIN C. F. HALL.

Of the U.S. ship 'Polaris'

Who sacrificed his life in the advancement of Science on Nov. 8,1871 This Tablet has been erected by the British Polar Expedition of 1875, which, following in his footsteps, has profited by his experience.

Within weeks disaster would strike the Nares expedition. In a fateful preview of things to come, the British elected to explore northward using manpower instead of dogs to pull their sleds. One group used fifteen men to pull three sledges loaded with two whale-boats and sixty-three days of provisions. With every sled weighing more thai two thousand pounds, each crewman pulled four hundred pounds. To cross the hummocks and sastrugi, sastrugi, they were forced to cut a road with picks and shovels. Men died of exposure, scurvy, and frostbite before they turned back. For all their sacrifice, they readied 8371' N, not much farther than Hall had got. they were forced to cut a road with picks and shovels. Men died of exposure, scurvy, and frostbite before they turned back. For all their sacrifice, they readied 8371' N, not much farther than Hall had got.

Stumbling back, the party returned to Polaris Promontory. There James Hand, one of their crew, died of scurvy. On June 8, 1875, they buried Hand near Captain Hall's grave. After the turn of the century, Scott would repeat the same fatal mistake of subst.i.tuting men and ponies for dogs when he attempted to reach the South Pole.

Six ye ars later Adolphus Greely with members of his expedition crossed the straits to visit the site. The lonely, windswept spot had acquired rhe name of Hall's Rest by now. While Greely searched for cached supplies amid the ruins, a bored Sgt. William Cross carved his name on a broken board at Bessel's observatory. Scarcely one year later the Arctic would claim the life of Sergeant Cross along with eighteen other members of the ill-fated Greely expedition. On that score Greely's group fared far worse than the Polaris Polaris expedition. Forced to eat their leather clothing to stay alive as George Tyson's party had done, only Greely and six of his men survived. expedition. Forced to eat their leather clothing to stay alive as George Tyson's party had done, only Greely and six of his men survived.

Ironically among the dead was Dr. Octave Pavy. In a bizarre twist of fate, Dr. Pavy had listened to Charles Francis Hall give his impa.s.sioned speech to the American Geographical Society before the Polaris Polaris sailed. Pavy would accompany Greely as his chief scientist. The European-educated Pavy would hamper Greely's efforts just as Emil Bessel had Hall's. The soldier Greely found Pavy insubordinate and disobedient, while Pavy condescended to deal with his uneducated commander. History repeated itself with fatal results. sailed. Pavy would accompany Greely as his chief scientist. The European-educated Pavy would hamper Greely's efforts just as Emil Bessel had Hall's. The soldier Greely found Pavy insubordinate and disobedient, while Pavy condescended to deal with his uneducated commander. History repeated itself with fatal results.

The quest to reach the North Pole would continue. Germany, Sweden, Great Britain, and the United States mounted further explorations. Most ama.s.sed mountains of scientific data but scarcely pa.s.sed the highest point reached by Captain Hall. Thirty-eight years after Hall's death, Robert E. Peary reached the top of the world by dogsled with his companion Matthew Henson. Even now controversy swirls about this claim. Richard E. Byrd did land at the North Pole using an airplane in 1926, followed in that same year by Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth in a dirigible flown by the Italian Umberto n.o.bile.

In regard to the survivors of the Polaris, Polaris, some fared better than others. The Inuit Hans almost lost his life when a fit of depression caused him to desert the Nares party. What caused his despair is not mentioned, but it may have been alcohol. British ships even now are not "dry," as the U.S. Navy ships are. Perhaps some infirmity convinced him his useful life was done, and he chose the time-honored Inuit way of removing an unnecessary mouth to feed. Tracking the despondent native down, the British found him huddled in a hole in the snow, prepared to die. They brought him back to camp, and eventually he recovered. some fared better than others. The Inuit Hans almost lost his life when a fit of depression caused him to desert the Nares party. What caused his despair is not mentioned, but it may have been alcohol. British ships even now are not "dry," as the U.S. Navy ships are. Perhaps some infirmity convinced him his useful life was done, and he chose the time-honored Inuit way of removing an unnecessary mouth to feed. Tracking the despondent native down, the British found him huddled in a hole in the snow, prepared to die. They brought him back to camp, and eventually he recovered.

Ebierbing and Tookoolito bought a piece of land with a small house near New London, Connecticut. With their adopted daughter Puney, they lived the life of celebrities while Ebierbing fished the warmer waters.

Tragedy touched the valiant Tigress. Tigress. After she was sold back to the sealing enterprise of Harvey & Company, of St. John's, Newfoundland, her boilers exploded while she was sailing amid the ice. Coming one month shy of a year after the ship had rescued George Tyson and his men, the explosion killed ten of the After she was sold back to the sealing enterprise of Harvey & Company, of St. John's, Newfoundland, her boilers exploded while she was sailing amid the ice. Coming one month shy of a year after the ship had rescued George Tyson and his men, the explosion killed ten of the Tigress's Tigress's crew outright and burned another eleven so badly that they died the next day. Captain Bartlett emerged unscathed and brought the ruined ship safely home. crew outright and burned another eleven so badly that they died the next day. Captain Bartlett emerged unscathed and brought the ruined ship safely home.

Sidney O. Buddington's reputation and career were ruined. He never captained another whaling vessel. In fact, he never returned to sea at The head of any sailing vessel.

Capt. George Tyson returned to the Arctic as the sailing master of another Arctic exploration, headed by Capt. Henry Howgate.

As the only one to salvage his scientific records, Emil Bessel publishec the findings of his studies in German. Over a period of ten years, he represented a thorn in the side of the Smithsonian. Despite letters from Spencer Baird urging him to accelerate his efforts, Bessel dragged out his work to compile an English version. Ensconced in a small room at the Smithsonian, Bessel grew more acerbic aid eccentric with each pa.s.sing year. A New York Herald New York Herald reporter described Bessel's strange office: "When the portals are entered, pa.s.sing under the heavy folds of green drapery which nearly hide the entrance, the visitor would suppose he had been suddenly translated into the retreat of Faustus." reporter described Bessel's strange office: "When the portals are entered, pa.s.sing under the heavy folds of green drapery which nearly hide the entrance, the visitor would suppose he had been suddenly translated into the retreat of Faustus."

Interviewed while the United States prepared for the International Polar Year of 1882, Bessel criticized a failed Arctic exploration under the command of Capt. Henry Howgate, the same Signal Corps officer who had served on the Polaris Polaris board of inquiry. In discussing Howgate's adventure, Bessel slipped into blending it with his own experience with Captain Hall. Referring to the scientists aboard, he snapped, "They had to submit to the orders of an incompetent, harsh skipper, who most seriously interfered with their duties." However, this time the "incompetent, harsh skipper" was George Tyson. board of inquiry. In discussing Howgate's adventure, Bessel slipped into blending it with his own experience with Captain Hall. Referring to the scientists aboard, he snapped, "They had to submit to the orders of an incompetent, harsh skipper, who most seriously interfered with their duties." However, this time the "incompetent, harsh skipper" was George Tyson.

By 1883 Spencer Baird had had enough. Bessel's salary was cut off, and he received a pithy note from William Rhees, Baird's secretary: Dear Doctor: We need immediate possession of the room now occupied by you near the north entrance, as we find it necessary to make improved toilet arrangements for visitors. Please therefore remove your property and greatly oblige.

Yours truly, Wm. J. Rhees Displaced by a toilet, Bessel returned to Germany. In another twist of fate, in 1888 he died from apoplexy.

SELECT B BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Blake, E. Vale, ed. Arctic Experiences, Containing Capt. George E. Tysen's Wonderful Drift on the Ice-Floe, a History of the Arctic Experiences, Containing Capt. George E. Tysen's Wonderful Drift on the Ice-Floe, a History of the Polaris Polaris Expedition. Expedition. New York: Harper New York: Harper &c &c Brothers, 1874. Brothers, 1874.

Davis, C. H. Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U.S. Ship Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U.S. Ship Polaris, Polaris, Captain Charles Francis Hall Commanding. Captain Charles Francis Hall Commanding. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876.

Governrient Printing Office. Examination of the Party Separated on the Ice from the United States Steamer Examination of the Party Separated on the Ice from the United States Steamer Polaris Polaris Expedition toward the North Pole. Expedition toward the North Pole. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1873. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1873.

Hyde, A., A. C. Baldwin, and W. L. Gage. The Frozen Zone and Its Explorers: A Comprehensive History of Voyages, Travels, Adventures, Disasters, and Discoveries in the Arctic Regions. The Frozen Zone and Its Explorers: A Comprehensive History of Voyages, Travels, Adventures, Disasters, and Discoveries in the Arctic Regions. Hartford, Conn.: R. W. Bliss & Company, 1880. Hartford, Conn.: R. W. Bliss & Company, 1880.

Loomis, Chauncey C. Weird and Tragic Sh.o.r.es: The Story of Charles Francis Hall, Explorer. Weird and Tragic Sh.o.r.es: The Story of Charles Francis Hall, Explorer. New York: Knopf, 1971. New York: Knopf, 1971.

Sargent, Epes, and W. H. Cunnington. Wonders of the Arctic Worfd: Together with a Complete and Reliable History of the Wonders of the Arctic Worfd: Together with a Complete and Reliable History of the Polaris Polaris Expedition. Expedition. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Book Company, 1873. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Book Company, 1873.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Richard Parry is a retired surgeon whose practice was based in Fairbanks, Alaska. He now lives in Sun City, Arizona. He is the author of three acclaimed novels about Wyatt Earp, as well as That Fateful Lightning: A Novel of Ulysses S. Grant. That Fateful Lightning: A Novel of Ulysses S. Grant.