The Temple of Nature; or, the Origin of Society Part 18

3. If a metallic point be fixed on the prime conductor, and the flame of a candle be presented to it, on electrising the conductor either with vitreous or resinous ether, the flame of the candle is blown from the point, which must be owing to the electric fluid in its pa.s.sage from the point carrying along with it a stream of atmospheric air.

The manner in which the acc.u.mulated electricity so readily pa.s.ses off by a metallic point may be thus understood; when a metallic point stands erect from an electrised metallic plane, the acc.u.mulated electricity which exists on the extremity of the point, is attracted less than that on the other parts of the electrised surface. For the particle of electric matter immediately over the point is attracted by that point only, whereas the particles of electric matter over every other part of the electrised plane, is not only attracted by the parts of the plane immediately under them, but also laterally by the circ.u.mjacent parts of it; whence the acc.u.mulated electric fluid is pushed off at this point by that over the other parts being more strongly attracted to the plane.

Thus if a light insulated horizontal fly be constructed of wire with points fixed as tangents to the circle, it will revolve the way contrary to the direction of the points as long as it continues to be electrised. For the same reason as when a circle of cork, with a point of the cork standing from it like a tangent, is smeared with oil, and thrown upon a lake, it will continue to revolve backwards in respect to the direction of the point till all the oil is dispersed upon the lake, as first observed by Dr. Franklin; for the oil being attracted to all the other parts of the cork-circle more than towards the pointed tangent, that part over the point is pushed off and diffuses itself on the water, over which it pa.s.ses without touching, and consequently without friction; and thus the cork revolves in the contrary direction.

As the flame of a candle is blown from a point fixed on an electrised conductor, whether vitreous or resinous electricity is acc.u.mulated on it, it shows that in both cases electricity pa.s.ses from the point, which is a forcible argument against the mechanical theory of positive and negative electricity; because then the flame should be blown towards the point in one case, and from it in the other.

So the electric fly, as it turns horizontally, recedes from the direction of the points of the tangents, whether it be electrised with vitreous or resinous electricity; whereas if it was supposed to receive electricity, when electrised by resin, and to part with it when electrised by gla.s.s, it ought to revolve different ways; which also forcibly opposes the theory of positive and negative electricity.

As an electrised point with either kind of electricity causes a stream of air to pa.s.s from it in the direction of the point, it seems to affect the air much in the same manner as the fluid matter of heat affects it; that is, it will not readily pa.s.s through it, but will adhere to the particles of air, and is thus carried away with them.

From this it will also appear, that points do not attract electricity, properly speaking, but suffer it to depart from them; as it is there less attracted to the body which it surrounds, than by any other part of the surface.

And as a point presented to an electrised conductor facilitates the discharge of it, and blows the flame of a candle towards the conductor, whether vitreous or resinous electricity be acc.u.mulated upon it; it follows, that in both cases some electric matter pa.s.ses from the point to the conductor, and that hence there are two electric ethers; and that they combine or explode when they meet together, and give out light and heat, and occupy less s.p.a.ce in this their combined state, like the union of nitrous gas with oxygen gas.

IV. _Acc.u.mulation of Electric Ethers by Contact._

The electric ethers may be separately acc.u.mulated by contact of conductors with nonconductors, by vicinity of the two ethers, by heat, and by decomposition.

Gla.s.s is believed to consist in part of consolidated resinous ether, and thence to attract an electric atmosphere round it, which consists of a greater proportion of vitreous ether compared to the quant.i.ty of the resinous, as mentioned in Proposition No. 4. This atmosphere may stand off a line from the surface of the gla.s.s, though its attractive or repulsive power may extend to a much greater distance; and a more equally mixed electric atmosphere may stand off about the same distance from the surface of a cushion.

Now when a cushion is forcibly pressed upon the surface of a gla.s.s cylinder or plane, the atmosphere of the cushion is forced within that of the gla.s.s, and consequently the vitreous part of it is brought within the sphere of the attraction of the resinous ether combined with the gla.s.s, and therefore becomes attracted by it in addition to the vitreous part of the spontaneous atmosphere of the gla.s.s; and the resinous part of the atmosphere of the cushion is at the same time repelled by its vicinity to the combined resinous ether of the gla.s.s.

From both which circ.u.mstances a vitreous ether alone surrounds the part of the gla.s.s on which the cushion is forcibly pressed; which does not, nevertheless, resemble an electrised coated jar; as this acc.u.mulation of vitreous ether on one side of the gla.s.s is not so violently condensed, or so forcibly attracted to the gla.s.s by the loose resinous ether on the other side of it, as occurs in the charged coated jar.

Hence as weak differences of the kinds or quant.i.ties of electricity do not very rapidly change place, if the cushion be suddenly withdrawn, with or without friction, I suppose an acc.u.mulation of vitreous electric ether will be left on the surface of the gla.s.s, which will diffuse itself on an insulated conductor by the a.s.sistance of points, or will gradually be dissipated in the air, probably like odours by the repulsion of its own particles, or may be conducted away by the surrounding air as it is repelled from it, or by the moisture or other impurities of the atmosphere. And hence I do not suppose the friction of the gla.s.s-globe to be necessary, except for the purpose of more easily removing the parts of the surface from the pressure of the cushion to the points of the prime conductor, and to bring them more easily into reciprocal contact.

When sealing wax or sulphur is rubbed by a cushion, exactly the same circ.u.mstance occurs, but with the different ethers; as the resinous ether of the spontaneous atmosphere of the cushion, when it is pressed within the spontaneous atmosphere of the sealing wax, is attracted by the solid vitreous ether, which is combined with it; and at the same time the vitreous ether of the cushion is repelled by it; and hence an atmosphere of resinous ether alone exists between the sealing wax and the cushion thus pressed together. It is nevertheless possible, that friction on both sealing wax and gla.s.s may add some facility to the acc.u.mulations of their opposite ethers by the warmth which it occasions. As most electric machines succeed best after being warmed, I think even in dry frosty seasons.

Though when a cushion is applied to a smooth surfaced gla.s.s, so as to intermix their electric atmospheres, the vitreous ether of the cushion is attracted by the resinous ether combined with the gla.s.s; but does not intermix with it, but only adheres to it: and as the gla.s.s turns round, the vitreous electric atmosphere stands on the solid resinous electric ether combined with the gla.s.s; and is taken away by the metallic points of the prime conductor.

Yet if the surface of the gla.s.s be roughened by scratching it with a diamond or with hard sand, a new event occurs; which is, that the vitreous ether attracted from the cushion by the resinous ether combined with the gla.s.s becomes adhesive to it; and stands upon the roughened gla.s.s, and will not quit the gla.s.s to go to the prime conductor; whence the surface of the gla.s.s having a vitreous electric atmosphere united, as it were, to its inequalities, becomes similar to resin; and will now attract resinous electric ether, like a stick of sealing wax, without combining with it. Whence this curious and otherwise unintelligible phenomenon, that smooth surfaced gla.s.s will give vitreous electric ether to an insulated conductor, and gla.s.s with a roughened surface will give resinous ether to it.

V. _Acc.u.mulation of electric ethers by vicinity._

Though the contact of a cushion on the whirling gla.s.s is the easiest method yet in use for the acc.u.mulation of the vitreous electric ether on an insulated conductor; yet there are other methods of effecting this, as by the vicinity of the two electric ethers with a nonconductor between them.

Thus I believe a great quant.i.ty of both vitreous and resinous electric ether may be acc.u.mulated in the following manner. Let a gla.s.s jar be coated within in the usual manner; but let it have a loose external coating, which can easily be withdrawn by an insulating handle. Then charge the jar, as highly as it may be, by throwing into it vitreous electric ether; and in this state hermetically seal it, if practicable, otherwise close it with a gla.s.s stopple and wax. When the external coating is drawn off by an insulating handle, having previously had a communication with the earth, it will possess an acc.u.mulation of resinous electric ether; and then touching it with your finger, a spark will be seen, and there will cease to be any acc.u.mulated ether.

Thus by alternately replacing this loose coating, and withdrawing it from the sealed charged jar, by means of an insulating handle; and by applying it to one insulated conductor, when it is in the vicinity of the jar; and to another insulated conductor, when it is withdrawn; vitreous electric ether may be acc.u.mulated on one of them, and resinous on the other; and thus I suspect an immense quant.i.ty of both ethers may be produced without friction or much labour, if a large electric battery was so contrived; and that it might be applied to many mechanical purposes, where other explosions are now used, as in the place of steam engines, or to rend rocks, or timber, or destroy invading armies!

The principle of this mode of acc.u.mulating the two electric ethers in some measure resembles that of Volta's Electrophorus and Bennet's Doubler.

VI. _Acc.u.mulation of electric ethers by heat and by decomposition._

When gla.s.s or amber is heated by the fire in a dry season, I suspect that it becomes in some degree electric; as either of the electric ethers which is combined with them may have its combination with those materials loosened by the application of heat; and that on this account they may more forcibly attract the opposite one from the air in their vicinity.

It has long been known, that a siliceous stone called the tourmalin, when its surfaces are polished, if it be laid down before the fire, will become electrified with vitreous, or what is called positive electricity on its upper surface; and resinous, or what is called negative electricity on its under surface; which I suppose lay in contact with somewhat which supported it near the fire.

In this experiment I suppose the tourmalin to be naturally combined with resinous electric ether like gla.s.s; which on one side next towards the fire by the increase of its attractive power, owing to the heat having loosened its combination with the earth of the stone, more strongly attracts vitreous electric ether from the atmosphere; which now stands on its surface: and then as the lower surface of the stone lies in contact with the hearth, the less quant.i.ty of vitreous ether is there repelled by the greater quant.i.ty of it on the upper surface; while the resinous ether is attracted by it: and the stone is thus charged like a coated jar with vitreous electric ether condensed on one side of it, and resinous on the other.

So cats, as they lie by the fire in a frosty day, become so electric as frequently to give a perceptible spark to one's finger from their ears without friction.

A fourth method of separating the two ethers would seem to be by the decomposition of metallic bodies, as in the experiment with Volta's Galvanic pile; which is said by Mr. Davy to act so much more powerfully, when an acid is added to the water used in the experiment; as will be spoken of below.

From experiments made by M. Saussure on the electricity of evaporated water from hot metallic vessels, and from those of china and gla.s.s, he found when the vessel was calcined or made rusty by the evaporating water, that the electricity of it was positive (or vitreous), and that from china or gla.s.s was negative (or resinous), Encyclop. Britan. Art.

Elect. No. 206, which seems also to show, that vitreous electric ether was given out or produced by the corrosion of metals, and resinous ether from the evaporation of water.

VII. _The spark from the conductor, and of electric light._

When either the vitreous or resinous electric ether is acc.u.mulated on an insulated conductor, and an uninsulated conductor, as the finger of an attendant, is applied nearly in contact with it, what happens? The attractive and repulsive powers of the acc.u.mulated electric ether pa.s.s through the nonconducting plate of air, and if it be of the vitreous kind, it attracts the resinous electric ether of the finger towards it, and repels the vitreous electric ether of the finger from it.

Hence there exists for an instant a charged plate of air between the finger and the prime conductor, with an acc.u.mulation of vitreous ether on one side of it, and of resinous ether on the other side of it; and lastly these two kinds of electric ethers suddenly unite by their powerful attraction of each other, explode, and give out heat and light, and rupture the plate of nonconducting air, which separated them.

The rupture or disjunction of the plate of air is known by the sound of the spark, as of thunder; which shows that a vacuum of air was previously produced by the explosion of the electric fluids, and a vibration of the air in consequence of the sudden joining again of the sides of the vacuum.

The light which attends electric sparks and shocks, is not accounted for by the Theory of Dr. Franklin. I suspect that it is owing to the combination of the two electric ethers, from which as from all chemical explosions both light and heat are set at liberty, and because a smell is said to be perceptible from electric sparks, and even a taste which must be deduced from new combinations, or decompositions, as in other explosions: add to this that the same thing occurs, when electric shocks are pa.s.sed through eggs in the dark, or through water, a luminous line is seen like the explosion of a train of gunpowder; lastly, whether light is really produced in the pa.s.sage of the Galvanic electricity through the eyes, or that the sensation alone of light is perceived by its stimulating the optic nerve, has not yet been investigated; but I suspect the former, as it emits light from its explosion even in pa.s.sing through eggs and through water, as mentioned above.

VIII. _The shock from the coated jar, and of electric condensation._

1. When a gla.s.s jar is coated on both sides, and either vitreous or resinous electricity is thrown upon the coating on one side, and there is a communication to the earth from the other side, the same thing happens as in the plate of air between the finger and prime conductor above described; that is, the acc.u.mulated electricity, if it be of the vitreous kind, on one coating of the gla.s.s jar will attract the resinous part of the electricity, which surrounds or penetrates the coating on the other side of the jar, and also repel the vitreous part of it; but this occurs on a much more extensive surface than in the instance of the plate of air between the finger and prime conductor.

The difference between electric sparks and shocks consists in this circ.u.mstance, that in the former the insulating medium, whether of air, or of thin gla.s.s, is ruptured in one part, and thus a communication is made between the vitreous and resinous ethers, and they unite immediately, like globules of quicksilver, when pressed forcibly together: but in the electric shock a communication is made by some conducting body applied to the other extremities of the vitreous, and of the resinous atmospheres, through which they pa.s.s and unite, whether both sides of the coated jar are insulated, or only one side of it.

And in this line, as they reciprocally meet, they appear to explode and give out light and heat, and a new combination of the two ethers is produced, as a residuum after the explosion, which probably occupies much less s.p.a.ce than either the vitreous or resinous ethers did separately before. At the same time there may be another unrestrainable ethereal fluid yet un.o.bserved, given out from this explosion, which rends oak trees, bursts stone-walls, lights inflammable substances, and fuses metals, or dissipates them in a calciform smoak, along with which great light and much heat are emitted, or these effects are produced by the heat and light only thus set at liberty by their synchronous and sudden evolution.

2. The curious circ.u.mstance of electric condensation appears from the violence of the shock of the coated jar compared with the strongest spark from an insulated conductor, though the latter possesses a much greater surface; when vitreous electric ether is thrown on one side of a coated jar, it attracts the resinous electric ether of the other side of the coated jar; and the same occurs, when resinous ether is thrown on one side of it, it attracts the vitreous ether of the other side of it, and thus the vitreous electric ether on one side of the jar, and the resinous ether on the other side of it become condensed, that is acc.u.mulated in less s.p.a.ce, by their reciprocal attraction of each other.

This condensation of the two electric ethers owing to their reciprocal attraction appears from another curious event, that the thinner the gla.s.s jar is, the stronger will the charge be on the same quant.i.ty of surface, as then the two ethers approaching nearer without their intermixing attract each other stronger, and consequently condense each other more. And when the gla.s.s jar is very thin the reciprocal attractive powers of the vitreous and resinous ether attract each other so violently as at length to pa.s.s through the gla.s.s by rupturing it, in the same manner as a less forcible attraction of them ruptures and pa.s.ses through the plate of air in the production of sparks from the prime conductor.

As these two ethers on each side of a charged coated jar so powerfully attract each other, when a communication is made between them by some conducting substance as in the common mode of discharging an electrised coated jar, they reciprocally pa.s.s to each other for the purpose of combining, as some chemical fluids are known to do; as when nitrous gas and oxygen gas are mixed together; whence as these fluids pa.s.s both ways to intermix with each other, and then explode; a bur appears on each side of a quire of paper well pressed together, when a strong electric shock is pa.s.sed through it; which is occasioned by their explosion, like a train of gunpowder, and consequent emission of some other ethereal fluid, either those of heat and light or of some new one not yet observed. Whence it becomes difficult to explain, according to the theory of Dr. Franklin, which way the electric fluid pa.s.sed; and which side of the coated jar contained positive and which the negative charge according to that doctrine.

But the theory of the ingenious Dr. Franklin failed also in explaining other phenomena of the coated jar; since if the positive electricity acc.u.mulated on one side of the jar repelled the electricity from the coating on the other side of it, so as to produce an electric vacuum; why should it be so eager, when a communication is made by some conducting body, to run into that vacuum by its attraction or gravitation, which has been made by its repulsion; as thus it seems to be violently attracted by the vacuum, from which it had previously repelled a fluid similar to itself, which is not easily to be comprehended.

3. There is another mode by which either vitreous or resinous electric ether is capable of condensation; which consists in contracting the volume, so as to diminish the surface of the electrised body; as was ingeniously shown by Dr. Franklin's experiment of electrising a silver tankard with a length of chain rolled up within it; and then drawing up the chain by a silk string, which weakened the electric attraction of the tankard; which was strengthened again by returning the chain into it; thus the condensation of an electrised cloud is believed to condense the electric ether, which it contains, and thus to occasion the lightning pa.s.sing from one cloud to another, or from a cloud into the earth.

This experiment of the chain and tankard is said to succeed as well with what is termed negative electricity in the theory of Dr. Franklin, as with what is termed positive electricity; but in that theory the negative electricity means a less quant.i.ty or total deprivation or vacuity of that fluid; now to condense negative electricity by lowering the suspended chain into the tankard ought to make it less negative; whereas in this experiment I am told it becomes more so, as appears by its stronger repulsion of cork b.a.l.l.s suspended on silk strings, and previously electrised by rubbed sealing wax: and if the negative electricity be believed to be a perfect vacuum of it, the condensation of a vacuum of electricity is totally incomprehensible; and this experiment alone seems to demonstrate the existence of two electric ethers.

IX. _Of Galvanic Electricity._

1. The conductors of electricity, as well as the nonconductors of it, have probably a portion of the vitreous and resinous ethers combined with them, and have also another portion of these ethers diffused round them, which forms their natural or spontaneous adhesive atmospheres; and which exists in different proportions round them correspondent in quant.i.ty to those which are combined with them, but opposite in kind.

These adhesive spontaneous atmospheres of electricity are shown to consist of different proportions or quant.i.ties of the electric ethers by Mr. Bennet's Doubler of Electricity, as mentioned in his work called New Experiments on Electricity, sold by Johnson. In this work, p. 91, the blade of a steel knife was evidently, in his language, positive, compared to a soft iron wire which was comparatively negative; so the adhesive electricity of gold, silver, copper, bra.s.s, bis.m.u.th, mercury, and various kinds of wood and stone, were what he terms positive or vitreous; and that of tin and zinc, what he terms negative or resinous.