The philosophy of mathematics Part 9

Finally, although, in the summary exposition which was the object of this chapter, I have had to exhibit the condition of extreme imperfection which still belongs to the integral calculus, the student would have a false idea of the general resources of the transcendental a.n.a.lysis if he gave that consideration too great an importance. It is with it, indeed, as with ordinary a.n.a.lysis, in which a very small amount of fundamental knowledge respecting the resolution of equations has been employed with an immense degree of utility. Little advanced as geometers really are as yet in the science of integrations, they have nevertheless obtained, from their scanty abstract conceptions, the solution of a mult.i.tude of questions of the first importance in geometry, in mechanics, in thermology, &c. The philosophical explanation of this double general fact results from the necessarily preponderating importance and grasp of _abstract_ branches of knowledge, the least of which is naturally found to correspond to a crowd of _concrete_ researches, man having no other resource for the successive extension of his intellectual means than in the consideration of ideas more and more abstract, and still positive.

In order to finish the complete exposition of the philosophical character of the transcendental a.n.a.lysis, there remains to be considered a final conception, by which the immortal Lagrange has rendered this a.n.a.lysis still better adapted to facilitate the establishment of equations in the most difficult problems, by considering a cla.s.s of equations still more _indirect_ than the ordinary differential equations. It is the _Calculus_, or, rather, the _Method of Variations_; the general appreciation of which will be our next subject.

CHAPTER V.

THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS.

In order to grasp with more ease the philosophical character of the _Method of Variations_, it will be well to begin by considering in a summary manner the special nature of the problems, the general resolution of which has rendered necessary the formation of this hyper-transcendental a.n.a.lysis. It is still too near its origin, and its applications have been too few, to allow us to obtain a sufficiently clear general idea of it from a purely abstract exposition of its fundamental theory.

PROBLEMS GIVING RISE TO IT.

The mathematical questions which have given birth to the _Calculus of Variations_ consist generally in the investigation of the _maxima_ and _minima_ of certain indeterminate integral formulas, which express the a.n.a.lytical law of such or such a phenomenon of geometry or mechanics, considered independently of any particular subject. Geometers for a long time designated all the questions of this character by the common name of _Isoperimetrical Problems_, which, however, is really suitable to only the smallest number of them.

_Ordinary Questions of Maxima and Minima._ In the common theory of _maxima_ and _minima_, it is proposed to discover, with reference to a given function of one or more variables, what particular values must be a.s.signed to these variables, in order that the corresponding value of the proposed function may be a _maximum_ or a _minimum_ with respect to those values which immediately precede and follow it; that is, properly speaking, we seek to know at what instant the function ceases to increase and commences to decrease, or reciprocally. The differential calculus is perfectly sufficient, as we know, for the general resolution of this cla.s.s of questions, by showing that the values of the different variables, which suit either the maximum or minimum, must always reduce to zero the different first derivatives of the given function, taken separately with reference to each independent variable, and by indicating, moreover, a suitable characteristic for distinguishing the maximum from the minimum; consisting, in the case of a function of a single variable, for example, in the derived function of the second order taking a negative value for the maximum, and a positive value for the minimum. Such are the well-known fundamental conditions belonging to the greatest number of cases.

_A new Cla.s.s of Questions._ The construction of this general theory having necessarily destroyed the chief interest which questions of this kind had for geometers, they almost immediately rose to the consideration of a new order of problems, at once much more important and of much greater difficulty--those of _isoperimeters_. It is, then, no longer _the values of the variables_ belonging to the maximum or the minimum of a given function that it is required to determine. It is _the form of the function itself_ which is required to be discovered, from the condition of the maximum or of the minimum of a certain definite integral, merely indicated, which depends upon that function.

_Solid of least Resistance._ The oldest question of this nature is that of _the solid of least resistance_, treated by Newton in the second book of the Principia, in which he determines what ought to be the meridian curve of a solid of revolution, in order that the resistance experienced by that body in the direction of its axis may be the least possible. But the course pursued by Newton, from the nature of his special method of transcendental a.n.a.lysis, had not a character sufficiently simple, sufficiently general, and especially sufficiently a.n.a.lytical, to attract geometers to this new order of problems. To effect this, the application of the infinitesimal method was needed; and this was done, in 1695, by John Bernouilli, in proposing the celebrated problem of the _Brachystochrone_.

This problem, which afterwards suggested such a long series of a.n.a.logous questions, consists in determining the curve which a heavy body must follow in order to descend from one point to another in the shortest possible time. Limiting the conditions to the simple fall in a vacuum, the only case which was at first considered, it is easily found that the required curve must be a reversed cycloid with a horizontal base, and with its origin at the highest point. But the question may become singularly complicated, either by taking into account the resistance of the medium, or the change in the intensity of gravity.

_Isoperimeters._ Although this new cla.s.s of problems was in the first place furnished by mechanics, it is in geometry that the princ.i.p.al investigations of this character were subsequently made. Thus it was proposed to discover which, among all the curves of the same contour traced between two given points, is that whose area is a maximum or minimum, whence has come the name of _Problem of Isoperimeters_; or it was required that the maximum or minimum should belong to the surface produced by the revolution of the required curve about an axis, or to the corresponding volume; in other cases, it was the vertical height of the center of gravity of the unknown curve, or of the surface and of the volume which it might generate, which was to become a maximum or minimum, &c. Finally, these problems were varied and complicated almost to infinity by the Bernouillis, by Taylor, and especially by Euler, before Lagrange reduced their solution to an abstract and entirely general method, the discovery of which has put a stop to the enthusiasm of geometers for such an order of inquiries. This is not the place for tracing the history of this subject. I have only enumerated some of the simplest princ.i.p.al questions, in order to render apparent the original general object of the method of variations.

_a.n.a.lytical Nature of these Problems._ We see that all these problems, considered in an a.n.a.lytical point of view, consist, by their nature, in determining what form a certain unknown function of one or more variables ought to have, in order that such or such an integral, dependent upon that function, shall have, within a.s.signed limits, a value which is a maximum or a minimum with respect to all those which it would take if the required function had any other form whatever.

Thus, for example, in the problem of the _brachystochrone_, it is well known that if _y_ = _f(z)_, _x_ = p(_z_), are the rectilinear equations of the required curve, supposing the axes of _x_ and of _y_ to be horizontal, and the axis of _z_ to be vertical, the time of the fall of a heavy body in that curve from the point whose ordinate is _z1_, to that whose ordinate is _z2_, is expressed in general terms by the definite integral

?_{_z2_}^{_z1_}v(1 + (_f'(z))_ + (p'(_z_))/(2_gz_))_dz._

It is, then, necessary to find what the two unknown functions _f_ and p must be, in order that this integral may be a minimum.

In the same way, to demand what is the curve among all plane isoperimetrical curves, which includes the greatest area, is the same thing as to propose to find, among all the functions _f(x)_ which can give a certain constant value to the integral

?_dx_v(1 + (_f'(x)_ )),

that one which renders the integral ?_f(x)dx_, taken between the same limits, a maximum. It is evidently always so in other questions of this cla.s.s.

_Methods of the older Geometers._ In the solutions which geometers before Lagrange gave of these problems, they proposed, in substance, to reduce them to the ordinary theory of maxima and minima. But the means employed to effect this transformation consisted in special simple artifices peculiar to each case, and the discovery of which did not admit of invariable and certain rules, so that every really new question constantly reproduced a.n.a.logous difficulties, without the solutions previously obtained being really of any essential aid, otherwise than by their discipline and training of the mind. In a word, this branch of mathematics presented, then, the necessary imperfection which always exists when the part common to all questions of the same cla.s.s has not yet been distinctly grasped in order to be treated in an abstract and thenceforth general manner.

METHOD OF LAGRANGE.

Lagrange, in endeavouring to bring all the different problems of isoperimeters to depend upon a common a.n.a.lysis, organized into a distinct calculus, was led to conceive a new kind of differentiation, to which he has applied the characteristic d, reserving the characteristic _d_ for the common differentials. These differentials of a new species, which he has designated under the name of _Variations_, consist of the infinitely small increments which the integrals receive, not by virtue of a.n.a.logous increments on the part of the corresponding variables, as in the ordinary transcendental a.n.a.lysis, but by supposing that the _form_ of the function placed under the sign of integration undergoes an infinitely small change. This distinction is easily conceived with reference to curves, in which we see the ordinate, or any other variable of the curve, admit of two sorts of differentials, evidently very different, according as we pa.s.s from one point to another infinitely near it on the same curve, or to the corresponding point of the infinitely near curve produced by a certain determinate modification of the first curve.[11] It is moreover clear, that the relative _variations_ of different magnitudes connected with each other by any laws whatever are calculated, all but the characteristic, almost exactly in the same manner as the differentials. Finally, from the general notion of _variations_ are in like manner deduced the fundamental principles of the algorithm proper to this method, consisting simply in the evidently permissible liberty of transposing at will the characteristics specially appropriated to variations, before or after those which correspond to the ordinary differentials.

[Footnote 11: Leibnitz had already considered the comparison of one curve with an other infinitely near to it, calling it "_Differentiatio de curva in curvam_." But this comparison had no a.n.a.logy with the conception of Lagrange, the curves of Leibnitz being embraced in the same general equation, from which they were deduced by the simple change of an arbitrary constant.]

This abstract conception having been once formed, Lagrange was able to reduce with ease, and in the most general manner, all the problems of _Isoperimeters_ to the simple ordinary theory of _maxima_ and _minima_.

To obtain a clear idea of this great and happy transformation, we must previously consider an essential distinction which arises in the different questions of isoperimeters.

_Two Cla.s.ses of Questions._ These investigations must, in fact, be divided into two general cla.s.ses, according as the maxima and minima demanded are _absolute_ or _relative_, to employ the abridged expressions of geometers.

_Questions of the first Cla.s.s._ The _first case_ is that in which the indeterminate definite integrals, the maximum or minimum of which is sought, are not subjected, by the nature of the problem, to any condition; as happens, for example, in the problem of the _brachystochrone_, in which the choice is to be made between all imaginable curves. The _second_ case takes place when, on the contrary, the variable integrals can vary only according to certain conditions, which usually consist in other definite integrals (which depend, in like manner, upon the required functions) always retaining the same given value; as, for example, in all the geometrical questions relating to real _isoperimetrical_ figures, and in which, by the nature of the problem, the integral relating to the length of the curve, or to the area of the surface, must remain constant during the variation of that integral which is the object of the proposed investigation.

The _Calculus of Variations_ gives immediately the general solution of questions of the former cla.s.s; for it evidently follows, from the ordinary theory of maxima and minima, that the required relation must reduce to zero the _variation_ of the proposed integral with reference to each independent variable; which gives the condition common to both the maximum and the minimum: and, as a characteristic for distinguishing the one from the other, that the variation of the second order of the same integral must be negative for the maximum and positive for the minimum. Thus, for example, in the problem of the brachystochrone, we will have, in order to determine the nature of the curve sought, the equation of condition

d?_{_z2_}^{_z1_}v([1 + (_f'(z)_) + (p'(_z_))]/(2_gz_))_dz_ = 0,

which, being decomposed into two, with respect to the two unknown functions _f_ and p, which are independent of each other, will completely express the a.n.a.lytical definition of the required curve. The only difficulty peculiar to this new a.n.a.lysis consists in the elimination of the characteristic d, for which the calculus of variations furnishes invariable and complete rules, founded, in general, on the method of "integration by parts," from which Lagrange has thus derived immense advantage. The constant object of this first a.n.a.lytical elaboration (which this is not the place for treating in detail) is to arrive at real differential equations, which can always be done; and thereby the question comes under the ordinary transcendental a.n.a.lysis, which furnishes the solution, at least so far as to reduce it to pure algebra if the integration can be effected. The general object of the method of variations is to effect this transformation, for which Lagrange has established rules, which are simple, invariable, and certain of success.

_Equations of Limits._ Among the greatest special advantages of the method of variations, compared with the previous isolated solutions of isoperimetrical problems, is the important consideration of what Lagrange calls _Equations of Limits_, which were entirely neglected before him, though without them the greater part of the particular solutions remained necessarily incomplete. When the limits of the proposed integrals are to be fixed, their variations being zero, there is no occasion for noticing them. But it is no longer so when these limits, instead of being rigorously invariable, are only subjected to certain conditions; as, for example, if the two points between which the required curve is to be traced are not fixed, and have only to remain upon given lines or surfaces. Then it is necessary to pay attention to the variation of their co-ordinates, and to establish between them the relations which correspond to the equations of these lines or of these surfaces.

_A more general consideration._ This essential consideration is only the final complement of a more general and more important consideration relative to the variations of different independent variables. If these variables are really independent of one another, as when we compare together all the imaginable curves susceptible of being traced between two points, it will be the same with their variations, and, consequently, the terms relating to each of these variations will have to be separately equal to zero in the general equation which expresses the maximum or the minimum. But if, on the contrary, we suppose the variables to be subjected to any fixed conditions, it will be necessary to take notice of the resulting relation between their variations, so that the number of the equations into which this general equation is then decomposed is always equal to only the number of the variables which remain truly independent. It is thus, for example, that instead of seeking for the shortest path between any two points, in choosing it from among all possible ones, it may be proposed to find only what is the shortest among all those which may be taken on any given surface; a question the general solution of which forms certainly one of the most beautiful applications of the method of variations.

_Questions of the second Cla.s.s._ Problems in which such modifying conditions are considered approach very nearly, in their nature, to the second general cla.s.s of applications of the method of variations, characterized above as consisting in the investigation of _relative_ maxima and minima. There is, however, this essential difference between the two cases, that in this last the modification is expressed by an integral which depends upon the function sought, while in the other it is designated by a finite equation which is immediately given. It is hence apparent that the investigation of _relative_ maxima and minima is constantly and necessarily more complicated than that of _absolute_ maxima and minima. Luckily, a very important general theory, discovered by the genius of the great Euler before the invention of the Calculus of Variations, gives a uniform and very simple means of making one of these two cla.s.ses of questions dependent on the other. It consists in this, that if we add to the integral which is to be a maximum or a minimum, a constant and indeterminate multiple of that one which, by the nature of the problem, is to remain constant, it will be sufficient to seek, by the general method of Lagrange above indicated, the _absolute_ maximum or minimum of this whole expression. It can be easily conceived, indeed, that the part of the complete variation which would proceed from the last integral must be equal to zero (because of the constant character of this last) as well as the portion due to the first integral, which disappears by virtue of the maximum or minimum state.

These two conditions evidently unite to produce, in that respect, effects exactly alike.

Such is a sketch of the general manner in which the method of variation is applied to all the different questions which compose what is called the _Theory of Isoperimeters_. It will undoubtedly have been remarked in this summary exposition how much use has been made in this new a.n.a.lysis of the second fundamental property of the transcendental a.n.a.lysis noticed in the third chapter, namely, the generality of the infinitesimal expressions for the representation of the same geometrical or mechanical phenomenon, in whatever body it may be considered. Upon this generality, indeed, are founded, by their nature, all the solutions due to the method of variations. If a single formula could not express the length or the area of any curve whatever; if another fixed formula could not designate the time of the fall of a heavy body, according to whatever line it may descend, &c., how would it have been possible to resolve questions which unavoidably require, by their nature, the simultaneous consideration of all the cases which can be determined in each phenomenon by the different subjects which exhibit it.

_Other Applications of this Method._ Notwithstanding the extreme importance of the theory of isoperimeters, and though the method of variations had at first no other object than the logical and general solution of this order of problems, we should still have but an incomplete idea of this beautiful a.n.a.lysis if we limited its destination to this. In fact, the abstract conception of two distinct natures of differentiation is evidently applicable not only to the cases for which it was created, but also to all those which present, for any reason whatever, two different manners of making the same magnitudes vary. It is in this way that Lagrange himself has made, in his "_Mechanique a.n.a.lytique_," an extensive and important application of his calculus of variations, by employing it to distinguish the two sorts of changes which are naturally presented by the questions of rational mechanics for the different points which are considered, according as we compare the successive positions which are occupied, in virtue of its motion, by the same point of each body in two consecutive instants, or as we pa.s.s from one point of the body to another in the same instant. One of these comparisons produces ordinary differentials; the other gives rise to _variations_, which, there as every where, are only differentials taken under a new point of view. Such is the general acceptation in which we should conceive the Calculus of Variations, in order suitably to appreciate the importance of this admirable logical instrument, the most powerful that the human mind has as yet constructed.

The method of variations being only an immense extension of the general transcendental a.n.a.lysis, I have no need of proving specially that it is susceptible of being considered under the different fundamental points of view which the calculus of indirect functions, considered as a whole, admits of. Lagrange invented the Calculus of Variations in accordance with the infinitesimal conception, and, indeed, long before he undertook the general reconstruction of the transcendental a.n.a.lysis. When he had executed this important reformation, he easily showed how it could also be applied to the Calculus of Variations, which he expounded with all the proper development, according to his theory of derivative functions.

But the more that the use of the method of variations is difficult of comprehension, because of the higher degree of abstraction of the ideas considered, the more necessary is it, in its application, to economize the exertions of the mind, by adopting the most direct and rapid a.n.a.lytical conception, namely, that of Leibnitz. Accordingly, Lagrange himself has constantly preferred it in the important use which he has made of the Calculus of Variations in his "a.n.a.lytical Mechanics." In fact, there does not exist the least hesitation in this respect among geometers.