The International Auxiliary Language Esperanto Part 27

CLa.s.sES OF VERBS.

There are two cla.s.ses of verbs--transitive and intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (_transitivaj verboj_).

161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the pa.s.sive.

(_a_). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:--Johano batis la hundon = _John beat the dog_. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.

(_b_). A transitive verb is in the pa.s.sive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:--La hundo estis batata de Johano = _The dog was (being) beaten by John_. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding the complement of a verb in the pa.s.sive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:--La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = _The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates_.

Intransitive Verbs (_netransitivaj verboj_).

162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:--Johano dormas = _John sleeps_, or, _is sleeping_.

Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no pa.s.sive voice.

Auxiliary Verb (_helpa verbo_).

163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = _to be_. This verb is used to form the pa.s.sive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = _to have_ is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = _I have a book_.

In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ "to be," viz., kusi = _to lie_; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = _to find oneself_; trovigi = _to be found_; stari = _to stand_; farti, or, stati = _to be_ (_well_ or _ill_).

Examples.--_La krajono kusas (estas) sur la tablo_ = The pencil is (lies) on the table. _Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton_ = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. _Kiel statas via tuso?_ = How is your cough?

Impersonal Use of Verbs.

164. Verbs used impersonally (_senpersone_) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:--

(_a_). Verbs which relate to the weather.

Examples.--_Pluvas_ = It rains. _Pluvos_ = It will rain. _Fulmis_ = It lightened. _Negus_ = It would snow. _Hajlis_ = It hailed.

(_b_). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.

Examples.--_Okazas_ = It happens. _Sajnos_ = It will seem.

_Prosperis al mi trovi_ = It was my fortune to find.

(_c_). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or pa.s.sive participle-adverb.

Examples.--_Estas pli bone forkuri_ = It is better to run away.

_Estas dirite, ke_ ... = It is said that ...

(_d_). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or p.r.o.noun with which it can agree (see par. 245).

Examples.--_Se estus pluvinte hierau, ni ne estus povintaj eliri_ = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. _Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte_ = I shall get the gra.s.s cut, when it has (will have) rained.

Reflexive Verbs (_refleksivaj verboj_).

165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive p.r.o.noun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb).

Examples.--_Mi lavas min_ = I wash myself. _Li lavis sin_ = He washed himself. _Vi razos vin_ = You will shave yourself. _Ili vestis sin_ = They dressed themselves.

166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal p.r.o.noun is not repeated.

Examples.--_Ili batis sin reciproke_, or, _Ili batis unu la alian_ = They beat one another. _Ili jetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia_ = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another's heads.

167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.

The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the _compound_ tenses in the active voice and _all_ the tenses in the pa.s.sive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed.

The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = _I am being_, etc., are very rarely used.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Esti = _to be_.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Estanta = being.

Past, Estinta = _been_, or, _having been_.

Future, Estonta = _about to be_, or, _going to be_.

Note that participles take the plural _J_ and accusative _N_ if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial _E_ (see par. 209 (_c_)).

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Mi estas = _I am._ Vi, ci estas = _You (thou) are (art)._ Li, si, gi, oni estas = _He_, _she_, _it_, _one is_.

Ni estas = _We are._ Vi estas = _You are._ Ili estas = _They are._

N.B.--The p.r.o.noun ci = _thou_ is rarely used.

Past.

Mi estis = _I was._ Vi estis = _You were._ Li, etc. estis = _He was._ Ni estis = _We were._ Vi estis = _You were._ Ili estis = _They were._

Future.

Singular. Mi estos = _I shall be._ Vi estos = _You will be._ Li, etc. estos = _He will be._ Plural. Ni estos = _We shall be._ Vi estos = _You will be._ Ili estos = _They will be._

CONDITIONAL MOOD.