The Grammar of English Grammars Part 82

x, l. 325. "Not so thick swarm'd once the soil Bedropt with blood of Gorgon."--_Ib._, B. x, l. 527. "And in a troubled sea of pa.s.sion tost."--_Ib._, B. x, l. 718. "The cause, alas, is quickly guest."--_Swift's Poems_, p. 404. "The kettle to the top was hoist"--_Ib._, p. 274. "In chains thy syllables are linkt."--_Ib._, p. 318. "Rather than thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt?"--_Ib._, p. 415. "The hyphen, or conjoiner, is a little line, drawed to connect words, or parts of words."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, 1832, -- 150. "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broke."--_Joh. Gram. Com._, p.

334. "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixt to them."--_Grant's Lat. Gram._, p. 66. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of _Valerius_, would set every body a-laughing."--_Walker's Dict._ "Being mocked, scourged, spitted on, and crucified."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 40.

"For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known, Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown."--_Roscommon_.

"In my own Thames may I be drownded, If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd-head."--_Swift_.

CHAPTER VIII.--ADVERBS.

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words: as _Now_, for _at this time_;--_Here_, for _in this place_;--_Very_, for _in a high degree_;--_Diligently_, for _in an industrious manner_. Thus the meaning of almost any adverb, may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun.

OBS. 2.--There are several customary combinations of short words, which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not a.n.a.lyze in parsing; _as, not at all, at length, in fine, in full, at least, at present, at once, this once, in vain, no doubt, on board_. But all words that convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few ellipses, an ingenious pa.r.s.er will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial phrases." In these instances, _length, doubt, fine_, and _board_, are unquestionably nouns; _once_, too, is used as a noun; _full_ and _all_ may be pa.r.s.ed either as nouns, or as adjectives whose nouns are understood; _at least_, is, _at the least measure; at present_, is, _at the present time_; and _in vain_, is, _in a vain course, or manner._

OBS. 3.--A phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech, the _parsing_ of which of course implies their separation. And though the division of our language into words, and the division of its words into parts of speech, have never yet been made exactly to correspond, it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible. Hence such terms as _everywhere, anywhere, nowadays, forever, everso, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, inside-out, upside-down_, if they are to be pa.r.s.ed simply as adverbs, ought to be compounded, and not written as phrases.

OBS. 4--Under nearly all the different cla.s.ses of words, some particular instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used _for_ them. (1.) ARTICLES: "This may appear incredible, but it is not _the_ less true."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, i, 337. "The other party was _a_ little coy."--_D. Webster._ (2.) NOUNS: "And scrutiny became _stone_[306]

blind."--_Cowper._ "He will come _home to-morrow._"--_Clark._ "They were travelling _post_ when he met them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 69. "And with a vengeance sent from Media _post_ to Egypt."--_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l.

170. "That I should care _a groat_ whether he likes the work or not."--_Kirkham._ "It has snowed terribly all night, and is _vengeance_ cold."--_Swift._ (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Drink _deep_, or taste not."--_Pope._ "A place _wondrous_ deep."--_Webster's Dict._ "That fools should be so _deep_ contemplative."--_Shak._ "A man may speak _louder_ or _softer_ in the same key; when he speaks _higher_ or _lower_, he changes his key."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 116. (4.) p.r.o.nOUNS: "_What_ am I eased?"--_Job._ "_What_ have I offended thee?"--_Gen._, xx, 9. "He is _somewhat_ arrogant."--_Dryden._ (5.) VERBS: "_Smack_ went the whip, round went the wheels."--_Cowper._ "For then the farmers came _jog, jog_, along the miry road."--_Id._ "_Crack!_ went something on deck."--_Robinson Crusoe._ "Then straight went the yard _slap_ over their noddle."--Arbuthnot. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "Like medicines given _scalding_ hot."--_Dodd._ "My clothes are almost _dripping_ wet."--"In came Squire South, stark, _staring_ mad."--_Arbuthnot._ "An _exceeding_ high mountain."--_Matt._, iv, 8. "How sweet, how _pa.s.sing_ sweet, the hour to me!"--_Ch. Observer._ "When we act _according_ to our duty."--_Dr. Johnson._ "A man was famous _according_ as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."--_Psal._, lxxiv, 5. (7.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Look, _as_ I blow this feather from my face."--_Shak._ "Not at all, or _but_ very gently."--_Locke._ "He was _but_ born to try the lot of man."--_Pope._ (8.) PREPOSITIONS: "They shall go _in_ and _out._"--_Bible._ "From going _to_ and _fro_ in the earth, and walking _up_ and _down_ in it."--_Ib._ These are actually _adverbs_, and not prepositions, because they govern nothing. (9.) INTERJECTIONS are never used as adverbs, though the Greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this cla.s.s. The using of other words for adverbs, (i. e., the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs,) may be referred to the figure _enallage_:[307] as,

"_Tramp, tramp_, across the land they speed, _Splash, splash_, across the sea."--_Burger._

OBS. 5.--As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, so adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, a.s.sume the nature of other parts of speech. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say _Yes_ or _No_; that will do very little good; _the yes_ or _the no_ must be accompanied and supported by reasons."--_Dr.

M'Cartee._ "Shall I tell you _why?_ Ay, sir, and _wherefore_; for, they say, every _why_ hath a _wherefore._"--_Shak._ (2.) Of ADJECTIVES: as, "Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an _almost_ desert."--_Wood's Dict., w. Moab._ "The _then_ bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."--_Clarendon._ "With _upward_ speed his agile wings he spread."--_Prior._ "She lights the _downward_ heaven, and rises there."--_Dryden._ (3.) Of p.r.o.nOUNS: as, "He liked the ground _whereon_ she trod."--_Milton._ "_Wherein_ have you been galled by the king?"--_Shak._ "O how unlike the place from _whence_ they fell!"--_Par. Lost_, B. i, l. 75.

Here _whereon_ is exactly equivalent in sense to _on which; wherein_, to _in what_; and _whence_, to _which_: but none of them are actually reckoned p.r.o.nouns. (4.) Of VERBS: as, "If he be hungry, more than wanton, bread alone will _down._"--_Locke._ "To _down_ proud hearts that would not willing die."--_Sidney._ "She never could _away_ with me."--_Shak._ "_Away_, and glister like the G.o.d of war."--_Id._ "_Up_, get ye out of this place."--_Gen._, xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS: as, "I, _even_ I, am he."--_Isaiah_, xliii, 25. "If I will that he tarry _till_ I come."--_John_, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him _before_ I die."--_Gen._, xlv, 28. "Before I go _whence_ I shall not return."--_Job_, x, 21. (6) Of PREPOSITIONS: as, "Superior to any that are dug _out_ the ground."--_Eames's Lect._, p. 28. "Who act _so counter_ heavenly mercy's plan."--_Burns._ Better perhaps, "_out of_" and "_counter to._" (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS: as, "_Up, up_, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"--_Scott._ "_Down, down_, cried Mar, your lances _down!_"--_Id._ "_Off!_ or I fly for ever from thy sight."--_Smith._

OBS. 6.--In these last examples, _up_, and _down_, and _off_, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections; but they need not be referred to either of these cla.s.ses, because by supplying a verb we may easily pa.r.s.e them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Horne Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that cla.s.s to which it may at first sight appear to belong; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work; but, as the cla.s.sification of words often depends upon their _construction_, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax.

OBS. 7.--The proper cla.s.sification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circ.u.mstances of any event or a.s.sertion, are the _when_, the _where_, the _how-much_, and the _how_; or the _time_, the _place_, the _degree_, and the _manner_. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of _sometime, somewhere, somewhat_, or _somehow_. Hence, the general cla.s.ses of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The cla.s.sification heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammar, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this: "Adverbs, _though very numerous_, may be reduced to _certain_ cla.s.ses, the _chief_ of which are _those of_ Number, Order, Place, Time, Quant.i.ty, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 115; _Comly's_, 66; _Kirkham's_, 86; _R.

C. Smith's_, 34; _Hall's_, 26; _and others_.

CLa.s.sES.

Adverbs may be reduced to four general cla.s.ses; namely, adverbs of _time_, of _place_, of _degree_, and of _manner_. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular cla.s.s of _conjunctive_ adverbs.

I. Adverbs of _time_ are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask.

OBS.--Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of time present; as, _Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith_.

2. Of time past; as, _Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst_.

3. Of time to come; as, _To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly_.

4. Of time relative; as, _When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles_.

5. Of time absolute; as, _Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly_.

6. Of time repeated; as, _Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice_, or _three times_. Above this, we use only the phrases _four times, five times, six times, &c_. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: _times_, for _repet.i.tions_, or _instances_, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

II. Adverbs of _place_ are those which answer to the question, _Where?

Whither? Whence?_ or, _Whereabout?_ including these which ask.

OBS.--Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of place in which; as, _Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts_.

2. Of place to which; as, _Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ash.o.r.e, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards_. _Inward, homeward, upward, downward, backward_, and _forward_, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives.

3. Of place from which; as, _Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely_.

4. Of the order of place; as, _First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c_.

Thus, _secondly_ means _in the second place_; _thirdly, in the third place_; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees.

III. Adverbs of _degree_ are those which answer to the question, _How much?

How little?_ or, to the idea of _more or less_.

OBS.--Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of excess or abundance; as, _Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, princ.i.p.ally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely_.

2. Of equality or sufficiency; as, _Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely_.

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, _Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite_.

4. Of quant.i.ty in the abstract; as, _How_, (meaning, _in what degree_,) _however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee_, and other nouns of quant.i.ty used adverbially.

IV. Adverbs of _manner_ are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded.

OBS.--Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of manner from quality; as, _Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly_, and many others formed by adding _ly_ to adjectives of quality.

_Ly_ is a contraction of _like_; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few of these are also used adverbially; as, _daily, weekly, monthly_, which denote time.

2. Of affirmation or a.s.sent; as, _Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, a.s.suredly, certes, forsooth,[308] amen_.

3. Of negation; as, _No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow_.