The Grammar of English Grammars Part 57

"Those words which were formerly current and proper, have now become obsolete and barbarous. Alas! this is not all: fame tarnishes in time too; and men grow out of fashion, as well as languages."--_Ib._, p. 55.

"O Luxury! thou curs'd by Heaven's decree, How ill exchang'd are things like these for thee."--_Goldsmith_.

"O, then, how blind to all that truth requires, Who think it freedom when a part aspires!"--_Id._

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF p.r.o.nOUNS.

LESSON I.--RELATIVES.

"At the same time that we attend to this pause, every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against."--_Murray's English Reader_, p. xx.

[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _that_ had not clearly the construction either of a p.r.o.noun or of a conjunction. But, according to Observation 18th, on the Cla.s.ses of p.r.o.nouns, "The word _that_, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain." Therefore, the expression should be altered: thus, "_While_ we attend to this pause, every appearance of _singsong_ must be carefully _avoided_."]

"For thou shalt go to all that I shall send thee."--_Jeremiah_, i, 7; _Gurney's Obs._, p. 223. "Ah! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I have possessed my kingdom."--See _Sanborn's Gram._, p. 242. "In the same manner that relative p.r.o.nouns and their antecedents are usually pa.r.s.ed."--_Ib._, p. 71. "Pa.r.s.e or mention all the other nouns in the parsing examples, in the same manner that you do the word in the form of parsing."--_Ib._, p. 8. "The pa.s.sive verb will always be of the person and number that the verb _be_ is, of which it is in part composed."--_Ib._, p. 53. "You have been taught that a verb must always be of the same person and number that its nominative is."--_Ib._, p. 68. "A relative p.r.o.noun, also, must always be of the same person, number, and even gender that its antecedent is."--_Ib._, p. 68.

"The subsequent is always in the same case that the word is, which asks the question."--_Ib._, p. 95. "_One_ sometimes represents an antecedent noun in the same definite manner that personal p.r.o.nouns do."--_Ib._, p. 98. "The mind being carried forward to the time that an event happens, easily conceives it to be present."--_Ib._, p. 107. "_Save_ and _saving_ are pa.r.s.ed in the same manner that _except_ and _excepting_ are."--_Ib._, p.

123. "Adverbs describe, qualify, or modify the meaning of a verb in the same manner that adjectives do nouns."--_Ib._, p. 16. "The third person singular of verbs, is formed in the same manner, that the plural number of nouns is."--_Ib._, p. 41. "He saith further: 'that the apostles did not anew baptize such persons, that had been baptized with the baptism of John.'"--_Barclay's Works_, i, 292. "For we which live, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake."--_2 Cor._, iv, 11. "For they, which believe in G.o.d, must be careful to maintain good works."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 431. "Nor yet of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."--_Ib._, i, 435. "So as to hold such bound in heaven, whom they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven, whom they loose on earth."--_Ib._, i, 478. "Now, if it be an evil to do any thing out of strife; then such things that are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken?"--_Ib._, i, 522. "All such who satisfy themselves not with the superficies of religion."--_Ib._, ii, 23. "And he is the same in substance, what he was upon earth, both in spirit, soul and body."--_Ib._, iii, 98. "And those that do not thus, are such, to whom the Church of Rome can have no charity."--_Ib._, iii, 204. "Before his book he placeth a great list of that he accounts the blasphemous a.s.sertions of the Quakers."--_Ib._, iii, 257. "And this is that he should have proved."--_Ib._, iii, 322. "Three of which were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university."--_Ib._, iii, 180. "Therefore it is not lawful for any whatsoever * * * to force the consciences of others."--_Ib._, ii, 13. "What is the cause that the former days were better than these?"--_Eccl._, vii, 10. "In the same manner that the term _my_ depends on the name _books_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 54. "In the same manner as the term _house_ depends on the relative _near_."--_Ib._, p.

58. "James died on the day that Henry returned."--_Ib._, p. 177.

LESSON II.--DECLENSIONS.

"_Other_ makes the plural _others_, when it is found without it's substantive."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 12.

[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the p.r.o.noun _it's_ is written with an apostrophe. But, according to Observation 25th, on the Declensions of p.r.o.nouns, "The possessive case of p.r.o.nouns should never be written with an apostrophe." Therefore, this apostrophe should be omitted; thus, "_Other_ makes the plural _others_, when it is found without its substantive."]

"But _his, her's, our's, your's, their's_, have evidently the form of the possessive case."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 23. "To the Saxon possessive cases, _hire, ure, eower, hira_, (that is, _her's, our's, your's, their's_,) we have added the _s_, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both their's and our's."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _1 Cor._, i, 2. "In this Place _His_ Hand is clearly preferable either to Her's or It's." [220]--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 59. "That roguish leer of your's makes a pretty woman's heart ake."--ADDISON: _in Joh. Dict._ "Lest by any means this liberty of your's become a stumbling-block."--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _1 Cor._, viii, 9. "First person: Sing. I, mine, me; Plur. we, our's, us."--_Wilbur and Livingston's Gram._, p. 16. "Second person: Sing. thou, thine, thee; Plur. ye or you, your's, you."--_Ib._ "Third person: Sing. she, her's, her; Plur. they, their's, them."--_Ib._ "So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not your's."--SCOTT ET AL.: _Jer._, v, 19. "Second person, Singular: Nom. thou or you, Poss. thine or yours, Obj. thee or you."--_Frost's El. of E.

Gram._, p. 13. "Second person, Dual: Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of ye two; Dat. Inc, incrum, to ye two; Acc. Inc, ye two; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two; Abl. Inc, incrum, from ye two."--_Gwill's Saxon Gram._, p. 12. "Second person, Plural; Nom. Ge, ye; Gen. Eower, of ye; Dat. Eow, to ye; Acc. Eow, ye; Voc. Eala ge, O ye; Abl. Eow, from ye."--_Ib._ (_written in_ 1829.) "These words are, _mine, thine, his, her's, our's, your's, their's_, and _whose_."--_Cardell's Essay_, p. 88. "This house is _our's_, and that is _your's. Their's_ is very commodious."--_Ib._, p. 90. "And they shall eat up thine harvest, and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."--_Jeremiah_, v, 17. "_Whoever_ and _Whichever_ are thus declined.

_Sing._ and _Plu. nom._ whoever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whomever.

_Sing._ and _Plu. nom._ whichever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whichever."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 38. "The compound personal p.r.o.nouns are thus declined; _Sing. N._ Myself, _P._ my-own, _O._ myself; _Plur. N._ ourselves, _P._ our-own, _O._ ourselves. _Sing. N._ Thyself or yourself, _P._ thy-own or your-own, _O._ thyself or yourself;"

&c.--_Perley's Gram._, p. 16. "Every one of us, each for hisself, laboured how to recover him."--SIDNEY: _in Priestley's Gram._, p. 96. "Unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest their selves."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 49. "It not only exists in time, but is time its self."--_Ib._, p. 75. "A position which the action its self will palpably deny."--_Ib._, p. 102. "A difficulty sometimes presents its self."--_Ib._, p. 165. "They are sometimes explanations in their selves."--_Ib._, p. 249. "Our's, Your's, Their's, Her's, It's."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, p. 24.

"Their's the wild chace of false felicities: His, the compos'd possession of the true."

--_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 216.

LESSON III.--MIXED.

"It is the boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most free and perfect, which exists on the earth."--_Dr.

Allen's Lectures_, p. 18.

[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the relative _which_ is here intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. But, according to Observation 26th, on the Cla.s.ses of p.r.o.nouns, (and others that follow it,) the word _who_ or _which_, with a comma before it, does not usually limit the preceding term.

Therefore, _which_ should be _that_, and the comma should be omitted; thus,--"that their government is the most free and perfect _that_ exists on the earth."]

"Children, who are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 69. "The scholar, who improves his time, sets an example worthy of imitation."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Nouns and p.r.o.nouns, which signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case."--_Cooper's Gram._, p. 115. "An interrogative sentence is one, which asks a question."--_Ib._, p. 114. "In the use of words and phrases, which in point of time relate to each other, a _due regard_ to _that relation_ should be _observed_."--_Ib._, p. 146; see _L. Murray_'s Rule xiii. "The same observations, which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the p.r.o.noun and participle."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 193. "The reason that they have not the same use of them in reading, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught."--_Ib._, p. 252.

"Since the time that reason began to exert her powers, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause."--_Murray's Key_, p. 271; _Merchant's Gram._, p. 212.

"In speaking of such who greatly delight in the same."--_Notes to Dunciad_, 177. "Except such to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre, that he may live."--_Esther_, iv, 11.--"But the same day that Lot went out of Sodom, it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all."--_Luke_, xvii, 29. "In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and p.r.o.nouns which have not yet come under our notice."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 129. "Three natural distinctions of time are all which can exist."--_Rail's Gram._, p. 15. "We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 68; _Hall's_, 14. "This point encloses a part of a sentence which may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members."--_Hall's Gram._, p. 39. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a Vowel."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 9. "Words are not simple sounds, but sounds, which convey a meaning to the mind."--_Ib._, p. 16. "Nature's postures are always easy; and which is more, nothing but your own will can put you out of them."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 197. "Therefore ought we to examine our ownselves, and prove our ownselves."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 426. "Certainly it had been much more natural, to have divided Active Verbs into _Immanent_, or such whose Action is terminated in it self, and _Transient_, or such whose Action is terminated in something without it self."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 273. "This is such an advantage which no other lexicon will afford."--DR. TAYLOR: _in Pike's Lex._, p. iv. "For these reasons, such liberties are taken in the Hebrew tongue with those words as are of the most general and frequent use."--_Pike's Heb. Lexicon_, p. 184. "At the same time that we object to the laws, which the antiquarian in language would impose upon us, we must enter our protest against those authors, who are too fond of innovations."--_Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p.

136.

CHAPTER VI.--VERBS.

A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_: as, I _am_, I _rule_, I _am ruled_; I _love_, thou _lovest_, he _loves_. VERBS are so called, from the Latin _Verb.u.m_, a _Word_; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence.

An English verb has four CHIEF TERMS, or PRINc.i.p.aL PARTS, ever needful to be ascertained in the first place; namely, the _Present_, the _Preterit_, the _Imperfect Participle_, and the _Perfect Participle_. The _Present_ is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, _be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate_.

The _Preterit_ is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or p.r.o.noun, denoting the subject of the a.s.sertion: as, _I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended_.

The _Imperfect Participle_ is that which ends commonly[221] in _ing_, and implies a _continuance_ of the being, action, or pa.s.sion: as, _being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating_.

The _Perfect Participle_ is that which ends commonly in _ed_ or _en_, and implies a _completion_ of the being, action, or pa.s.sion: as, _been, acted, ruled, loved_.

CLa.s.sES.

Verbs are divided, with respect to their _form_, into four cla.s.ses; _regular_ and _irregular, redundant_ and _defective_.

I. A _regular verb_ is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by a.s.suming _d_ or _ed_; as, _love, loved, loving, loved_.

II. An _irregular verb_ is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by a.s.suming _d_ or _ed_; as, _see, saw, seeing, seen_.

III. A _redundant verb_ is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, _thrive, thrived_ or _throve, thriving, thrived_ or _thriven_.

IV. A _defective verb_ is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, _beware, ought, quoth_.

Verbs are divided again, with respect to their _signification_, into four cla.s.ses; _active-transitive, active-intransitive, pa.s.sive_, and _neuter_.

I. An _active-transitive_ verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as, "Cain _slew Abel_."--"Ca.s.sius _loved Brutus_."

II. An _active-intransitive_ verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as, "John _walks_."--"Jesus _wept_."

III. A. _pa.s.sive verb_ is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as, "I _am compelled_."--"Caesar _was slain_."

IV. A _neuter verb_ is a verb that expresses neither action nor pa.s.sion, but simply being, or a state of being; as, "There _was_ light."--"The babe _sleeps_."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--So various have been the views of our grammarians, respecting this complex and most important part of speech, that almost every thing that is contained in any theory or distribution of the English verbs, may be considered a matter of opinion and of dispute. Nay, the essential nature of a verb, in Universal Grammar, has never yet been determined by any received definition that can be considered un.o.bjectionable. The greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of this part of speech, is difficult, if not impossible, to be formed. Horne Tooke, at the close of his Diversions of Purley, cites with contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition, some Latin, some English, some French; then, with the abruptness of affected disgust, breaks off the catalogue and the conversation together, leaving his readers to guess, if they can, what he conceived a verb to be. He might have added some scores of others, and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them. A definition like that which is given above, may answer in some degree the purpose of distinction; but, after all, we must judge what is, and what is not a verb, chiefly from our own observation of the sense and use of words.[222]

OBS. 2.--Whether _participles_ ought to be called verbs or not, is a question that has been much disputed, and is still variously decided; nor is it possible to settle it in any way not liable to some serious objections. The same may perhaps be said of all the forms called _infinitives_. If the essence of a verb be made to consist in affirmation, predication, or a.s.sertion, (as it is in many grammars,) neither infinitives nor participles can be reckoned verbs, without a manifest breach of the definition. Yet are the former almost universally treated as verbs, and by some as the only pure verbs; nor do all deny them this rank, who say that affirmation is _essential_ to a verb. Participles, when unconnected with auxiliaries, are most commonly considered a separate part of speech; but in the formation of many of our moods and tenses, we take them as _const.i.tuent parts of the verb_. If there is absurdity in this, there is more in undertaking to avoid it; and the inconvenience should be submitted to, since it amounts to little or nothing in practice. With auxiliaries, then, participles _are verbs_: without auxiliaries, they are _not verbs_, but form a separate part of speech.

OBS. 3.--The number of verbs in our language, amounts unquestionably to four or five thousand; some say, (perhaps truly,) to eight thousand. All these, whatever be the number, are confessedly _regular_ in their formation, except about two hundred. For, though the catalogues in our grammars give the number somewhat variously, all the irregular, redundant, and defective verbs, put together, are _commonly_ reckoned fewer than two hundred. I admit, in all, two hundred and nineteen. The regular verbs, therefore, are vastly more numerous than those which deviate from the stated form. But, since many of the latter are words of very frequent occurrence, the irregular verbs appear exceedingly numerous in practice, and consequently require a great deal of attention. The defective verbs being very few, and most of these few being mere auxiliaries, which are never pa.r.s.ed separately, there is little occasion to treat them as a distinct cla.s.s; though Murray and others have ranked them so, and perhaps it is best to follow their example. The redundant verbs, which are regular in one form and irregular in an other, being of course always found written either one way or the other, as each author chooses, may be, and commonly have been, referred in parsing to the cla.s.s of regular or irregular verbs accordingly. But, as their number is considerable, and their character peculiar, there may be some advantage in making them a separate cla.s.s.

Besides, the definition of an irregular verb, as given in any of our grammars, seems to exclude all such as _may_ form the preterit and the perfect participle by a.s.suming _d_ or _ed_.

OBS. 4.--In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided, with respect to their signification, into three cla.s.ses only; _active, pa.s.sive_, and _neuter_. In such a division, the cla.s.s of _active_ verbs includes those only which are _active-transitive_, and all the _active-intransitive_ verbs are called _neuter_. But, in the division adopted above, _active-intransitive_ verbs are made a distinct cla.s.s; and those only are regarded as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, therefore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, we may, if we please, apply the simple term active to all those which express _action_, whether _transitive_ or _intransitive_. "We _act_ whenever we _do_ any thing; but we _may act_ without _doing_ any thing."--_Crabb's Synonymes_.