The Evolution of States Part 47

[Footnote 1025: As to what traffic actually took place in the Dark Ages, cp. Heyd, _Histoire du commerce de Levant_, Fr. tr. 1886, i, 94-99.]

[Footnote 1026: c.o.x, _The Crusades_, p. 146.]

[Footnote 1027: Pignotti, _History of Tuscany_, Eng. trans. 1823, iii, 256-62.]

[Footnote 1028: _Hist. de la Civ. en France_, ed. 13e, iii, 6e lecon.]

[Footnote 1029: Down even to the points of chast.i.ty and "training."]

[Footnote 1030: This is now pretty generally recognised. Among recent writers compare Green, _Short History_, ch. iv, -- 3; Pearson, as last cited, p. 220; Gardiner, _Student's History of England_, p. 235; and _Introduction to the Study of English History_, p. 91. See also Buckle, 3-vol. ed. ii, 133; 1-vol. ed. p. 362. The sentimental view is still extravagantly expressed by Ducoudray, _Histoire sommaire de la civilisation_, 1886.]

[Footnote 1031: Pignotti, as cited, iii, 279; G. Villani, _Cronica_, xii, 54-56.]

[Footnote 1032: Cp. Thierry, _Histoire de la Conquete_, iv, 210. As Thierry notes (p. 247), John Ball's English is much less Gallicised than that which became the literary tongue.]

[Footnote 1033: "Depuis les dominateurs de l'Orient jusqu'aux maitres de Rome a.s.servie ... quiconque detient la liberte d'autrui dans la servitude, perd la sienne...." (Morin, _Origines de la democratie_, pp.

137-38).]

[Footnote 1034: Cp. Busch, _England unter den Tudors_, 1892, i, 6.]

[Footnote 1035: Stubbs, _Const. Hist._, iii, 632, 633; Busch, _England unter den Tudors_, i, 81; Green, ch. vi, -- 3, pp. 267, 268, 287, 288.]

[Footnote 1036: Cp. Gardiner, _Student's History_, p. 330.]

[Footnote 1037: The clergy and the Parliament seem to have applauded the project of an invasion of France instantly and without reservation (Sharon Turner, _History of England during the Middle Ages_, ii, 383).

And already in the minority of Henry VI "the Parliament was fast dying down into a mere representation of the baronage and the great landowners" (Green, ch. vi, p. 265). "Never before and never again for more than two hundred years were the Commons so strong as they were under Henry IV" (Stubbs, iii, 73).]

[Footnote 1038: Pearson, _English History in the Fourteenth Century_, pp. 250, 251. Among the minor forms of oppression were local vetoes on the grinding of the people's own corn by themselves in their handmills.

Thus "the tenants of St. Albans extorted a licence to use querns at the time of Tyler's rebellion" (Morgan, _England under the Normans_, 1858, p. 161).]

[Footnote 1039: As to the failure of these laws see Gasquet, _The Great Pestilence_, 1893, p. 196 sq.]

[Footnote 1040: _Id._ p. 200.]

[Footnote 1041: Lewis's _Life of Wiclif_, ed. 1820, pp. 224, 225; Lechler's _John Wycliffe and his English Precursors_, Eng. tr. 1-vol.

ed. pp. 371-76; Prof. Montagu Burrows, _Wiclif's Place in History_, p.

19.]

[Footnote 1042: Green, _Short History_, ch. v, -- 4; Gardiner, _Introduction_, pp. 94-98; Rogers, _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, p.

272.]

[Footnote 1043: Cp. Sharon Turner, _England during the Middle Ages_, ii, 263; iii, 108; Milman, _Latin Christianity_, viii, 213, 215.]

[Footnote 1044: Green, ch. v, -- 5, p. 255; Stubbs, iii, 609-10. He further refused the pet.i.tion from the Commons in 1391, demanding that no "neif or villein" should be allowed to have his children educated. Cp.

de Montmorency, _State Intervention in English Education_, 1902, p. 27.]

[Footnote 1045: Green, p. 258; Stubbs, iii. 32. It is plain that among the factious n.o.bility, and even the courtiers, of the time there was a strong disposition to plunder the Church (Stubbs, iii, 43, 48, 53).

Doubt is cast by Bishop Stubbs on Walsingham's story of the Lollard pet.i.tion of 1410 for the confiscation of the lands of bishops and abbots, and the endowment therewith of 15 earls, 1,500 knights, 6,000 esquires, and 100 hospitals (Stubbs, iii, 65; cp. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, viii, 214; ix, 17-18); but in any case many laymen leant to such views, and the king's resistance was steadfast. Yet an archbishop of York, a bishop, and an abbot successively rebelled against him. On his hanging of the archbishop, see the remarkable professional reflections of Bishop Stubbs (iii, 53).]

[Footnote 1046: Act 2 Hen. IV, c. 15. Cp. de Montmorency, _State Intervention in English Education_, 1902, p. 36.]

[Footnote 1047: Stubbs, iii, 626; de Montmorency, p. 29; Act 7 Hen. IV, c. 17.]

[Footnote 1048: Schanz (_Englische Handelspolitik_, i, 349, 350) decides that the middle cla.s.s was the only one which gained. The lower fared as ill as the upper. Cp. Stubbs, iii, 610.]

[Footnote 1049: Hallam (_Const.i.tutional History_, 10th ed. 1, 10) doubts whether Henry VII carried the power of the Crown much beyond the point reached by Edward. Busch, who substantially agrees (_England unter den Tudors_, i, 8, _note_), misreads Hallam in criticising him, overlooking the "much." Edward had so incensed the London traders by his exactions that it was by way of undertaking to redress these and similar grievances that Richard III ingratiated himself (Green, pp. 293-94).]

[Footnote 1050: Cp. Green, pp. 285-86.]

[Footnote 1051: Stubbs, iii, 283; Hallam, _Middle Ages_, iii, 326, 328; Green, ch. vi, -- 3, p. 282. This, however, did not mean the maintenance of English shipping, which declined. See Act 4 Hen. VII, c. 10; and cp.

Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry_, -- 121. "France seems to have had a considerable share of foreign commerce near a century before England was distinguished as a commercial country" (Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, bk. iii, ch. iv). Yet fishing and seafaring ranked as the main national industries (Busch, _England unter den Tudors_, i, 251).]

[Footnote 1052: See Stubbs, i, 675, as to the large foreign element in the London population, apart from the Hansa factory; and cp. Ashley, _Introd. to Economic History_, ii, 209.]

[Footnote 1053: The fact that the Scandinavian kings were eager to damage the Hansa by encouraging English and Dutch traders would be a special stimulus.]

[Footnote 1054: Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_, i, 392.]

[Footnote 1055: Busch, _England unter den Tudors_, i, 250-65. Edward had actually traded extensively on his own account, freighting ships to the Mediterranean with tin, wool, and cloth Green, p. 287; Henry, _History of Great Britain_, ed. 1823, xii, 309, 315-16; Act 4 Hen. VII, c. 10; Hall's _Chronicle_, under Henry VII.]

[Footnote 1056: Green, p. 295.]

[Footnote 1057: "Something like a fifth of the actual land in the kingdom was ... transferred from the holding of the Church to that of n.o.bles and gentry" (Green, ch. vii, -- 1, p. 342).]

[Footnote 1058: Cp. E. Armstrong, _Introduction_ to Martin Hume's _Spain_, 1898, pp. 13, 19, 29; Prescott, _History of Ferdinand and Isabella_, pt. i, ch. vi, _end_; Hallam, _Middle Ages_, iii, 331.]

[Footnote 1059: See Stubbs, iii, 626-28, as to the extent to which ability to read was spread among the common people. As to the general effect on mental life see the vigorous though uncritical panegyric of Hazlitt, _Lectures on the Literature of the Age of Elizabeth_, ed. 1870, pp. 12-17.]

[Footnote 1060: As to the democratic element in Calvinism, which develops from Lollardism, see the interesting remarks of Buckle, 3-vol.

ed. ii, 339; 1-vol. ed. p. 481. Prof. Gardiner sums up (_Introduction to the Study of English History_, pp. 97, 98) "that as soon as Lollardism ceased to be fostered by the indignation of the labouring cla.s.s against its oppressors, it dwindled away." Compare the conclusions of Prof.

Thorold Rogers, _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, p. 272, and see above, p. 390. Prof. Rogers (p. 273) traces the success of the Reformation in the Eastern counties to the long work of Lollardism there. In the same district lay the chief strength of the Rebellion.

Compare his _Economic Interpretation of History_, pp. 79-91.]

[Footnote 1061: Gardiner, _History of England, 1603-42_, ed. 1893, i, 45.]

[Footnote 1062: Cp. Pulszky, _The Theory of Law and Civil Society_, p.

206. "Theocracy in itself, being the hierarchical rule of a priestly cla.s.s, is but a species of aristocracy." And see Buckle's chapter, "An Examination of the Scotch Intellect during the Seventeenth Century"

(3-vol. ed. iii, 211, 212; 1-vol. ed. pp. 752-53; and notes 36, 37, 38) for the express claims of the Scotch clergy to give out "the whole counsel of G.o.d."]

[Footnote 1063: Dr. Gardiner writes:--"Nor was it indifference alone which kept these powerful men aloof; they had an instinctive feeling that the system to which they owed their high position was doomed, and that it was from the influence which the preachers were acquiring that immediate danger was to be apprehended to their own position" (last cit.). One is at a loss to infer how the historian can know of or prove the existence of such an instinct.]

[Footnote 1064: In her partialities she was fully as ill-judging as Mary of Scotland. To the eye of the Spanish amba.s.sador Dudley was "heartless, spiritless, treacherous, and false" (Bishop Creighton, _Queen Elizabeth_, ed. 1899, p. 65). Ess.e.x in turn was a furious fool.]

[Footnote 1065: As to the change in English feeling between 1580, when the Catholic missionaries were widely welcomed, and the years after 1588, see _The Dynamics of Religion_, by "M.W. Wiseman" (J.M. R.). Cp.

Gardiner, _History of England, 1603-42_, ed. 1893, i, 15: "Every threat uttered by a Spanish amba.s.sador rallied to the national government hundreds who in quieter times would have looked with little satisfaction on the changed ceremonies of the Elizabethan Church."]

[Footnote 1066: Cp. Motley, _History of the United Netherlands_, 1867, i, 391 _sq._]