The Evolution of States Part 32

[Footnote 659: Thus Rolf the Ganger fared forth to France because Harold Fairhair would not suffer piracy on any territory acquired by him.]

[Footnote 660: _Essay on the Principle of Population_, 7th ed. p. 139.]

[Footnote 661: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 254. Dr. Ph. Schweitzer (_Geschichte der skandinavischen Literatur_, -- 19), makes the surprising statement that the quant.i.ty of old coins found in Scandinavia (over 100,000 within the last century) proves that the ancient Scandinavian commerce was very great (_ein ganz grossartiger_). His own account of the occasional barter of the Vikings shows that there was nothing "grossartig" about it, and the coins prove nothing beyond piracy.]

[Footnote 662: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 263, 287.]

[Footnote 663: _Id._ pp. 251, 252, 277, 377.]

[Footnote 664: _Id._ pp. 304, 305, 311.]

[Footnote 665: _Id._ ii, 350. Cp. Laing, _Journal of a Residence in Norway_ (1834-36), ed. 1851, p. 135. Bain, however, p.r.o.nounces that in Norway in the latter part of the fifteenth century "the peasantry were mostly thralls" (_Scandinavia_, 1905, p. 10).]

[Footnote 666: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 305, 310.]

[Footnote 667: _Id._ p. 332; Geijer, p. 135.]

[Footnote 668: Geijer, pp. 88, 91; Crichton and Wheaton, i, 331.]

[Footnote 669: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 324.]

[Footnote 670: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 331.]

[Footnote 671: _Id._ p. 336.]

[Footnote 672: Geijer, pp. 100, 109; Otte, _Scandinavian History_, 1874, p. 252.]

[Footnote 673: Cp. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, 4th ed. ii, 225, on Anglo-Saxon separatism. Since this was written there has taken place the decisive separation between Norway and Sweden.]

[Footnote 674: Otte, _Scandinavian History_, 1874, pp. 214-18. Himself an excellent Latinist, he sought to raise the learned professions, and compelled the burghers to give their children schooling under penalty of heavy fines. He further caused new and better books to be prepared for the public schools, and stopped witch-burning. Cp. Allen, _Histoire de Danemark_, i, 281.]

[Footnote 675: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 377-79, 383; Allen, as cited, i, 286, 310.]

[Footnote 676: Otte, p. 222; Allen, i, 287, 290.]

[Footnote 677: Crichton and Wheaton, i, 384-86; Allen, pp. 287-90.]

[Footnote 678: Allen, i, 299, 300.]

[Footnote 679: Crichton and Wheaton, pp. 386, 387. These writers suppress the details as to Frederick's anti-popular action; and Otte's history, giving these, omits all mention of his act of toleration.

Allen's is the best account, i, 293, 299, 301, 305.]

[Footnote 680: Crichton and Wheaton, pp. 394-96; Otte, pp. 222-24.

According to some accounts, the great bulk of the spoils went to the n.o.bility. Villers, _Essay on the Reformation_, Eng. tr. 1836, p. 105.]

[Footnote 681: It is notable that even in the thirteenth century there was a Norwegian king (Erik) called the Priest-hater, because of his efforts to make the clergy pay taxes.]

[Footnote 682: "The bulk of the people, at least in the first instance, and especially in Sweden and Norway, were by no means disposed to look to Wittenberg rather than to Rome for spiritual guidance" (Bain, _Scandinavia_, p. 86; cp. pp. 60, 64).]

[Footnote 683: Geijer, p. 177; Otte, p. 234.]

[Footnote 684: As the king wrote later to an acquisitive n.o.ble: "To strip churches, convents, and prebends of estates, manors, and chattels, thereto are all full willing and ready; and after such a fashion is every man a Christian and evangelical"--_i.e._ Lutheran. Geijer, p. 126.

Cp. p. 129 as to the practice of spoliation.]

[Footnote 685: Geijer, pp. 119, 129.]

[Footnote 686: _Id._ p. 125; Otte, p. 236. The prelates were no longer admitted to any political offices, though the bishops and pastors sat together in the Diet.]

[Footnote 687: See Geijer, pp. 129-36.]

[Footnote 688: Prof. York Powell, article on Icelandic Literature, in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 10th ed. xii, 621; 11th ed. xiv, 233.]

[Footnote 689: _Id._ (11th ed. xiv, 234).]

[Footnote 690: Bain, _Scandinavia_, pp. 100-1.]

[Footnote 691: Powell, article on Icelandic Literature, _Ency. Brit._ 10th ed. xii, 621.]

[Footnote 692: _Id._ p. 623.]

[Footnote 693: Shaftesbury (_Characteristics_, ed. 1900, ii, 262) writes in 1713 of "that forlorn troop of begging gentry extant in Denmark or Sweden, since the time that those nations lost their liberties."]

[Footnote 694: Crichton and Wheaton, ii, 104.]

[Footnote 695: _Id._ ii, 321-22.]

[Footnote 696: Laing in 1839 (_Tour in Sweden_, p. 13) thought the Danes as backward as they had been in 1660, quoting the amba.s.sador Molesworth as to the effect of Lutheran Protestantism in destroying Danish liberties (pp. 10, 11). But it is hard to see that there were any popular liberties to destroy, save in so far as the party which set up the Reformation undid the popular laws of Christian II. The greatest social reforms in Denmark are certainly the work of the last half-century.]

[Footnote 697: It will be remembered that the Marquis of Pombal, in Portugal, at the same period, was similarly overthrown after a much longer and non-scandalous reformatory rule, the queen being his enemy.]

[Footnote 698: His particulars were gathered during a tour he made in 1799. Thus the Norse practice he notes had been independent of any effect produced by his own essay.]

[Footnote 699: _Essay on the Principle of Population_, 7th ed. pp. 126, 133.]

[Footnote 700: This was doubtless owing to the loss of Finland (1742), a circ.u.mstance not considered by Malthus.]

[Footnote 701: Malthus (p. 141) gives higher and clearly erroneous figures for both periods, and contradicts them later (p. 143) with figures which he erroneously applies to Sweden _and Finland_. He seems to have introduced the latter words in the wrong pa.s.sage.]

[Footnote 702: _Id._ p. 141.]

[Footnote 703: See p. 131 as to the restrictions on subdivision of farms by way of safeguarding the forests.]

[Footnote 704: _Id._ p. 126. A priest would often refuse to marry a couple who had no good prospect of a livelihood: so far could rational custom affect even ecclesiastical practice.]

[Footnote 705: Cp. Crichton and Wheaton, ii, 339-50; Laing, _Journal of a Residence in Norway_ (1834-36), ed. 1851, pp. 22, 23, 34, 35, 191, 214.]

[Footnote 706: Crichton and Wheaton, ii, 345. Laing (_Tour in Sweden_, pp. 277-82) thought the Swedish peasants better off than the Scotch, though morally inferior to the Norwegian.]