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ankaux : also. kvankam : although.
ol : than. almenaux : at least.
se : if. tamen : however.
aux : or. do : then, therefore.
The following are also useful:--
kaj ... kaj : both ... and. nek ... nek : neither ... nor.
aux ... aux : either ... or. ecx se : even if.
cxu ... aux : whether ... or. same kiel : the same as.
cxu ... cxu : whether ... whether.
EXCLAMATIONS. INTERJECTIONS.
The following are simply exclamations of joy grief, surprise, etc.:--
ah! : aha! ah! kia! : what!
ha! : ah! bone! : good! all right!
he! : halloo! hey! brave! : bravo!
hm! : hm! humph! hura! : hurrah!
ho! : oh! vere! : truly!
oho! : ho! efektive! : really!
ho ve! : alas! adiaux! : goodbye!
for! : away! bonvenu! : welcome!
fi! : for shame! kompreneble! : of course!
nu! : well (now)! vivu! : long live!
nu do! : well (now) then! antauxen! : forward!
ja! : indeed! cxu vere? : is it true?
jen! : there! look! behold! cxu ne? : is it not?
bis! : again! encore!
COMPOUND WORDS.
It is often convenient to form compound words, as "posxtkarto", "forpeli", "cxiuminute", "stacidomo", "senmove", "telertuketo". When this is done, the word expressing the princ.i.p.al idea is placed last.
Generally it is sufficient to use the "root" of the qualifying word, but if the sound or sense requires it, the whole word is taken, as "unutaga"
means "of one day"; "unuataga", "of the first day."
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN THE SENTENCE.
In English the sense often depends entirely on the order of the words, e.g., the sentence "John saw George" would mean something quite different if reversed--"George saw John." But in Esperanto, thanks to the accusative "n", the endings "a" and "e" for participles, and the p.r.o.noun "si", the order of words may be varied without altering the sense. "Georgon vidis Johano" means exactly the same as "Johano vidis Georgon."
But though the meaning can in most cases be understood whatever the order of the words, it is best to adopt the simplest arrangement, and to follow the natural course of thought, which is, first, that about which we think, then that which we think about it. English students may frame their sentences exactly as they would in their own language. In Esperanto, as in English, the arrangement is sometimes altered, either for emphasis, as "Lauxdata estu Dio!" Praised be G.o.d!; or to please the ear, as "Oni min admiras", instead of "Oni admiras min", People admire me.
"Note".--Care must be taken in placing the word "ne." Its usual place is before the verb, when it negatives the whole sentence. Study the effect of placing "ne" in different positions in the sentence "Mi deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I wish to see John and his brother:--
(i.). "Mi ne deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I do not wish to see John and his brother.
(ii.). "Mi deziras ne vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I wish not to see John and his brother, "i.e.", I wish to avoid seeing them.
(iii.). "Mi deziras vidi ne Johanon, sed lian fraton", I wish to see not John, but his brother.
(iv.). "Mi deziras vidi Johanon kaj ne lian fraton", I wish to see John and not his brother.
"Ne tute" means "not quite," while "tute ne" means "not at all."
"Jam ne" means "no longer." "Not yet" is "ankoraux ne".
Words which are already international, such as "microscope, telephone, automobile", etc., are adopted unchanged, except as to the spelling and termination, as "mikroskopo, telefono, auxtomobilo."
WORDS USED WITH THE OBJECT.
As already said, when an adjective or participle (or a noun) is added to the object simply as a describing word, it takes "n" like the object, as "Li perdis sian novan libron "("aux", sian libron novan), He lost his new book. "Sxi trankviligis la kriegantan infanon "(aux, "la infanon kriegantan"), She pacified the screaming child. "Li vizitis sian fraton Johanon", He visited his brother John. ("John" shows "which" brother).
But if the adjective, participle, or noun is used not merely to describe, but indirectly to tell something about the object, it does not take "n". A comparison of the following sentences will make this clear:--
1. Li trovis la pomojn maturajn. He found the ripe apples.
Li trovis la pomojn maturaj. He found (that) the apples (were) ripe.
2. Li trovis la krucxon rompitan. He found the broken jug.
Li trovis la krucxon rompita. He found (that) the jug (was) broken.
3. Li kolorigis la drapon rugxan. He dyed the red cloth.
Li kolorigis la drapon rugxa. He dyed the cloth red.
4. Li trancxis (aux faris) la veston tro mallongan.
He cut (or made) the too-short coat (the coat that was too short).
Li trancxis la veston tro mallonga.
He cut the coat (so that it was) too short.
5. Li nomis la knabon mensogisto. He called the boy a liar.
Compare this use of words with the following:--
He made his father angry (or, be angered). "Li kolerigis sian patron", or, "li igis sian patron kolera".
The loss drove him mad. "La perdo frenezigis lin", or, "igis lin freneza".
It rendered the gun useless. "Gxi senutiligis la pafilon", or, "igis la pafilon senutila".
COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.
By Dr. Zamenhof.
A.--Alphabet.
