The English Husbandman Part 2

(2) Is the hind-most Toastree, that is, a broad piece of Ash woode, three inches broad, which going crosse the chaine, hath the Swingletrees fastned vnto it, by which the horses draw. Now you shall vnderstand that in this Toastree is great helpe and aduantage: for if the two horses which draw one against the other, be not of equall strength, but that the one doth ouer-draw the other, then you shall cause that end of the Toastree by which the weaker horse drawes, to be longer from the chaine then the other, by at least halfe a foote, and that shall giue the weaker horse such an aduantage, that his strength shall counterpoyse with the stronger horse. Now there be some especiall Husbandmen that finding this disaduantage in the Toastree, and that by the vncertaine shortening, and lenthening of the Toastree, they haue sometimes more disaduantaged the strong horse, then giuen helpe to the weake, therefore they haue inuented another Toastree, with a double chaine, and a round ring, which is of that excellent perfection in draught, that if a Foale draw against an olde horse, yet the Foale shall draw no more then the abilitie of his owne strength, each taking his worke by himselfe, as if they drew by single chaines. Now because this Toastree is such a notable Implement both in Plough, Cart, or Waine, and so worthy to be imitated of all good husbands, I thinke it not amisse to shew you the figure thereof.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The Toastree with double chaines.}

(3) The Swingletrees, being pieces of Ash wood cut in proportion afore-shewed, to which the Treates, by which the horses draw, are fastned with strong loopes.

(4) The Treates by which the horses draw, being strong cords made of the best Hempe.

(5) The place betweene the Treats, where the horses must stand.

(6) The Hames, which girt the Collers about, to which the other end of the Treats are fastned, being compa.s.sed pieces of wood, eyther cleane Ash, or cleane Oake.

(7) The round Withes of wood, or broad thongs of leather, to put about the horses necke, to beare the maine chayne from the ground, that it trouble not the horses in their going.

(8) The Single-linckes of Iron, which ioyne the Swingle-trees vnto the Toastrees.

(9) The Belly-bands, which pa.s.se vnder the belly of the horse, and are made fast to both sides of the Treates, keeping them downe, that when the horse drawes, his coller may not choake him: being made of good small line or coard.

(10) The Backe-bands, which going ouer the horses backe, and being made fast to both sides of the Treates, doe hold them, so as when the horses turne, the Treates doe not fall vnder their feete.

{SN: How many beasts in a plough.} Thus I haue giuen you the perfect portraiture of a well yoakt Plough, together with his Implements, and the vse of them, being the best which hath yet beene found out by any of our skilfullest English Husbandmen, whose practise hath beene vpon these deepe, stiffe, blacke clayes. Now you shall vnderstand, that for the number of Cattell to be vsed in these ploughes, that in fallowing your land, and plowing your Pease-earth, eight good Cattell are the best number, as being the strongest, and within the compa.s.se of gouernment, whereas more were but troublesome, and in all your other Ardors, sixe good beasts are sufficient, yet if it be so, that eyther want of abilitie, or other necessity vrge, you shall know that sixe beasts will suffice eyther to fallow, or to plow Pease-earth, and foure beasts for euery other Ardor or earing: and lesse then this number is most insufficient, as appeares by daily experience, when poore men kill their Cattell onely by putting them to ouer-much labour. And thus much touching the plowing of the blacke clay.

CHAP. VI.

_The manner of plowing the white or gray Clay, his Earings, Plough, and Instruments._

Now as touching the white or gray clay, you shall vnderstand that it is of diuers and sundry natures, altering according to his tempers of wet or drynesse: the wet being more tough, and the dry more brittle: his mixture and other characters I haue shewed in a former Chapter, wherefore for his manner of plowing (obseruing my first methode, which is to beginne with the beginning of the yeere, I meane at Christmas) it is thus:

{SN: Of sowing of Pease and Beanes.} If you finde that any of this white or gray clay, lying wet, haue lesse mixture of stone or chaulke in it, and so consequently be more tough, as it doth many times fall out, and that vpon such land, that yeere, you are to sow your Pease and Beanes: for as in the former blacke clay, so in this gray clay you shall begin with your Pease-earth euer: then immediately after Plow-day, you shall plow vp such ground as you finde so tough, in the selfe-same manner as you did plow the blacke clay, and so let it lye to baite till the frost haue seasoned it, and then sow it accordingly. But if you haue no such tough land, but that it holdes it owne proper nature, being so mixt with small stones and chaulke, that it will breake in reasonable manner, then you shall stay till the latter end of Ianuary, at what time, if the weather be seasonable, and inclining to drynesse, you shall beginne to plow your Pease-earth, in this manner: First, you shall cause your seedes-man to sow the land with single casts, as was shewed vpon the blacke clay, with this caution, that the greater your seede is, (that is, the more Beanes you sow) the greater must be your quant.i.tie: and being sowne, you shall bring your plough, and beginning at the furrow of the land, you shall plow euery furrow downeward vpon the Pease and Beanes: which is called sowing of Pease vnder furrow: and in this manner you shall sow all your Pease and Beanes, which is cleane contrary to your blacke clay. Besides, whereas vpon the stiffe clay it is conuenient to take as large furrowes as you please, vpon this kinde of gray clay you shall take as small furrowes as is possible. Now the reason for this manner of plowing your Pease-earth, is, because it is a light kinde of breaking earth, so that should it be sowne according to the stiffe blacke clay, it would neuer couer your Pease, but leaue them bare, both to be destroyed by the Fowles of the ayre, and the bitternesse of the weather. As soone as your Pease and Beanes are risen a fingers length aboue the earth, then if you finde that any of your lands doe lye very rough, and that the clods be great, it shall not be amisse, to take a payre of woodden Harrowes, and harrow ouer all your rough lands, the benefit whereof is this, that it will both breake the hard clots, and so giue those Pease leaue to sprout through the earth, which before lay bound in and drowned, and also lay your lands smooth and cleane, that the Mowers when they come to mowe your Pease and Beanes, shall haue better worke, and mowe them with more ease, and much better to the owners profit. For you must vnderstand that where you sow Beanes, there it is euer more profit to mowe them with Sythes, then to reape them with Hookes, and much sooner, and with lesse charge performed. The limitation of time for this Ardor of earing, is from the latter end of Ianuary vntill the beginning of March, not forgetting this rule, that to sow your Pease and Beanes in a shower, so it be no beating raine is most profitable: because they, as Wheat, take delight in a fresh and a moyst mould.

{SN: Of sowing of Barley.} After the beginning of March, you shall beginne to sow your Barley vpon that ground which the yeere before did lye fallow, and is commonly called your tilth, or fallow field: and if any part of it consist of stiffe and tough ground, then you shall, vpon such ground, sow your Barley vnder furrow, in such manner and fashion as I described vnto you for the sowing of your stiffe blacke clay: but if it be (as for the most part these gray and white clayes are) of a much lighter, and as it were, fussie temper, then you shall first plow your land vpward, cleane and well, without baukes or stiches: and hauing so plowed it, you shall then sow it with Barley, that is to say, with double casts, I meane, bestowing twise so many casts of Barley, as you would doe if you were to sow it with Pease. And as soone as you haue sowne your Barley, you shall take a payre of woodden Harrowes, and harrow it as small as is possible: and this is called sowing aboue furrow.

{SN: Of sowing Oates.} Now if you haue any land, which eyther through the badnesse of the soyle, or for want of manure, is more barrayne, and hard to bring forth then generally the rest of your land is, then you shall not bestow Barley thereupon, but sow it with Oates, in such manner and fashion as is appointed for the sowing of Pease, that is to say, if it be stiffe ground you shall sow it aboue furrow, if it be light ground, then you shall sow it vnder furrow, knowing this for a rule, that the barraynest ground will euer beare indifferent Oates, but if the ground haue any small hart, then it will beare Oates in great abundance: neither neede you to be very precise for the oft plowing of your ground before you sow your Oates, because Oates will grow very well if they be sowne vpon reasonable ground, at the first plowing: whence it comes to pa.s.se that many Husbandmen doe oft sow their Oates where they should sow their Pease, and in the same manner as they doe sow their Pease, and it is held for a rule of good husbandry also: because if the ground be held any thing casuall for Pease, it is better to haue good Oates then naughty Pease: besides, your Oates are both a necessary graine in the house, as for Oate-meale, for the pot, for Puddings, and such like, and also for the stable, for Prouender, and the feeding of all manner of Poultry. The time for sowing of your Barley and Oates, is from from the first of March till the first of Aprill, obseruing euer to sow your Oates first, and your Barley after, for it being onely a Summer graine, would partic.i.p.ate as little as may be with any part of the Winter.

{SN: Of Fallowing.} {SN: Of sleighting Barley.} About the middest of Aprill you shall beginne to fallow that part of your ground, which you entend shall take rest that yeere, and so become your fallow or tilth-field. And in fallowing this gray or white clay, you shall obserue all those rules and ceremonies, which are formerly described for the fallowing of the stiffe blacke clay, knowing that there is in this worke no difference betweene the blacke clay, and the gray clay, but both to be plowed after one manner, that is to say, to haue all the furrowes cast downeward, and the ridges of the lands laid largely open, and of a good depth, onely the furrowes which you turne vpon this gray clay must be much smaller and lesse then those which you turne vpon your stiffe blacke clay, because this earth is more naturally inclined to binde and cleaue together then that of the blacke clay. The time for fallowing of this ground, is from the middest of Aprill vntill the middest of May: at what time you shall perceiue your Barley to appeare aboue the ground, so that then you shall beginne to sleight and smooth it: but not with backe Harrowes, as was described for the blacke clay, because this gray clay being not so fat and rich, but more inclined to fastnesse and hardnesse, therefore it will not sunder and breake so easily as the other: wherefore when you will smooth or sleight this ground, you shall take a round piece of wood, being in compa.s.se about at least thirty inches, and in length sixe foote, hauing at each end a strong pinne of Iron, to which making fast two small poales, by which the horse shall draw, yet in such sort that the round piece of wood may roule and turne about as the horse drawes it: and with this you shall roule ouer all your Barley, and by the waight of the round piece of wood bruise and breake all the hard clots asunder. This is called amongst Husbandmen a Rouler, and is for this purpose of sleighting and smoothing of grounds of great vse and profit. Now you shall vnderstand that you must not at any time sleight or smooth your Corne, but after a shower of Raine, for if the mould be not a little moistned the rouler will not haue power to breake it.

Now for as much as this rouler is of so good vse and yet not generally vsed in this kingdome, I thinke it not amisse to shew you the figure thereof.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The great Rouler.}

As soone as you haue roulled ouer your Barley, & laid it so smooth as you can with your rouler, if then you perceiue any hard clots, such as the rouler cannot breake, then you shal send forth your seruants with long clotting beetels, made broad and flat, and with them you shall breake asunder all those hard clots, and so lay your Barley as smooth and cleane as is possible: the profit whereof you shall both finde in the multiplying of your Corne and also in the sauing of your sithes from breaking, at such time as you shall come to mowe your Corne, and gather in your Haruest.

{SN: Of Summer-stirring.} {SN: Of weeding.} {SN: Of stone gathering.} Your Barley being thus laide smooth, you shall then follow your other necessary businesses, as preparing of your fewell, and other needements for houshould, vntill the beginning of Iune, at which time you shall beginne to Summer-stirre your fallow field, which shalbe done in all points after the same manner as you did Summer-stirre your blacke Clay, that is to say, you shall beginne in the ridge of the land, and as when you fallowed your land you turned your furrowes downeward, so now in Summer-stirring, you shall turne your furrowes vpward and close the ridge of you land againe. As soone as this Ardor is finished, or when the vnseasonablenesse of the weather, as either too much wet, or too much drynesse shall hinder you from Plowing, you shall then looke into your Cornefields, that is to say: first into your Wheate and Rye field, and if there you shall finde any store of weedes, as Thistell, Darnell, Tare-c.o.c.kle, or such like, you shall with weede-hookes, or nippers of woode, cut, or plucke them vp by the rootes; and also if you finde any annoyance of stones, which hinders the growth of your Corne, as generally it happens in this soyle, you shall then cause some Boyes and Girles, or other waste persons, to gather them vp and lay them in heapes at the lands ends, to be imployed either about the mending of high wayes or other occasions, and for this purpose their is a generall custome in most Villages, that euery houshoulder is bound to send out one seruant to be imployed about this businesse: whence it comes to pa.s.se, that it is called common worke, as being done at the generall charge of the whole Parish. After you haue weeded your Wheate and Rye, you shall then weede your Barley also, which being finished about the midst of Iuly, you shall then beginne to looke into your medowes and to the preparing of your Hay haruest.

{SN: Of foyling.} Now at such time as either the vnseasonablenesse of the weather, or the growth of your gra.s.se shall hinder you from following that businesse of Haruest, you shall then looke into your fallow or tilth field againe, and whereas before at your Summer-stirring you Plowed your land vpward, now you shall beginne to foile, that is to say, you shall cast your land downe againe, and open the ridge: and this Ardor of all other Ardors you must by no meanes neglect vpon the gray, white clay, because it being most subiect vnto weede, and the hardest to bring to a fine mould, this Ardor of all others, doth both consume the one and makes perfect the other, and the drier season you doe foile your land in, the better it is, and the more it doth breake and sunder the clots in pieces: for as in Summer-stirring the greater clots you raise vp, and the rougher your land lies the better it is, because it is a token of great store of mould, so when you foile, the more you breake the clots in pieces the better season will your land take, and the richer it wilbe when the seede is sowne into it: And the season for the foiling of this soile is from the midst of Iuly till the midst of September.

{SN: Of Manuring.} Now albe I haue omitted the Manuring of this land in his due place, as namely, from the midst of Aprill, till the end of May, yet you shall vnderstand that of all other things it is not in any wise to be neglected by the carefull Husbandman, both because the soyle being not so rich as the blacke Clay, will very hardly bring forth his seede without Manure, and also because it is for the most part subiect vnto much wet, and stones, both which are signes of cold and barrainenesse.

Now for those Manures, which are best and most proper for this soile, you shall vnderstand that all those which I formerlie described for the blacke Claies, as namely, Oxe or Cowes dung, Horse dung and Sheepes dung, are also very good for this soile, and to be vsed in the same manner as is specified in the former Chapter: but if you haue not such store of this Manure as will serue to compa.s.se your whole land, you shall then vnderstand, that the blacke mud, or durt which lies in the bottome of olde ponds, or else standing lakes, is also a very good manure for this soile, or else straw which is spread in high-wayes, and so rotted by the great concourse or vse of much trauelling, and after in the Spring-time shouelled vp in great heapes, is a good manure for this earth: but if you finde this soile to be subiect to extraordinary wet and coldnesse, you shall then know that the ashes eyther of wood, coale, or straw, is a very good manure for it. But aboue all other, and then which there is no manure more excellent for cold barraine clayes of this nature, the Pigions dung, or the dung of houshold Pullen, as Capons, Hennes, Chickens, Turkies, and such like, so there be no Goose-dung amongst it, is the best of all other: but not to be vsed in such sort as the other manures, that is to say, to be laid in great heapes vpon the land, or to be spread from the Cart vpon the land, for neyther is there such abundance of such manure to be gotten, nor if there were, it would not be held for good husbandrie to make lauish hauocke of a thing so precious.

{SN: The vse of Pigion or Pullen-dung.} You shall then know that for the vse of Pigion or Pullen-dung, it is thus: you shall first with your hand breake it as small as may be, and then put it into the Hopper, in such sort as you put your corne when you sow it: and then looke how you sow your corne, in such sort you shall sow your Pigion or Pullen-dung: which done, you shall immediately put your Barley into the same Hopper, and so sow it after the Pigions or Pullen-dung: by which you are to vnderstand that this kinde of manuring is to be vsed onely in Seede-time, and at no other season. This manure is of the same nature that sheepes manure is, and doth last but onely for one yeere, onely it is much hotter, as being in the greatest extremitie of heate. Now if it happen that you cannot get any of this Pigions or Pullen-dung, because it is scarce, and not in euery mans power, if then you take Lime and sow it vpon your land in such sort as is before said of the Pigions-dung, and then sow your corne after it, you shall finde great profit to come thereon, especially in colde wet soiles, such as for the most part, these gray white clayes are.

{SN: Of sowing Wheate.} After your land is foild, which worke would be finished by the middest of September, then you shall beginne to sow your Wheate, Rye, and Maslin, which in all things must be done as is before set downe for the blacke clay, the choice of seede, and euery obseruation being all one: for Wheate not taking delight in a very rich ground, doth prosper best vpon this indifferent soile. Whence it comes that in these gray white clayes, you shall for the most part, see more Wheate sowne then any other Graine whatsoeuer. But as touching your Rye and Maslin, that euer desires a rich ground and a fine mould, and therefore you shall make choise of your better earth for that Seede, and also obserue to helpe it with manure, or else sheepes folding, in such manner as is described in the former Chapter, where I spake of the sowing of Wheate, Rye, and Maslin.

{SN: Of winter-ridging.} As soone as you haue sowne your Wheate, Rye, and Maslin, you shall then about the latter end of October, beginne to Winter ridge, or set vp your land for the whole yeere: which you shall doe in all points, as you doe vpon the blacke clay, without any change or alteration. And the limitation for this Ardor is, from the latter end of October vntill the beginning of December, wherein your yeeres worke is made perfect and compleate.

{SN: Obseruations.} Now you shall vnderstand, that although I haue in this generall sort pa.s.sed ouer the Ardors and seuerall Earings of this white or gray clay, any of which are in no wise to be neglected: yet there are sundry other obseruations to be held of the carefull Husbandman, especially in the laying of his land: as thus, if the soile be of good temper, fruitfull, drie, and of a well mixed mould, not being subiect to any naturall spring or casting forth of moisture, but rather through the natiue warmth drying vp all kinde of fluxes or colde moistures, neyther binding or strangling the Seede, nor yet holding it in such loosenesse, that it loose his force of increasing, in this case it is best to lay your lands flat and leuell, without ridges or furrowes, as is done in many parts of Cambridge-shire, some parts of Ess.e.x, and some parts of Hartford-shire: but if the clay be fruitfull and of good temper, yet either by the bordering of great hils, the ouer-flow of small brookes, or some other casuall meanes it is subiect to much wet or drowning, in this case you shall lay your lands large and high, with high ridges and deepe furrowes, as generally you see in Lincolne-shire, Nottingham-shire, Huntington-shire, and most of the middle Shires in England. But if the land be barraine, colde, wet, subiect to much binding, and doth bring forth great store of weedes, then you shall lay your land in little stiches, that is to say, not aboue three or foure furrowes at the most together, as is generally seene in Middles.e.x, Hartford-shire, Kent and Surrey: for by that meanes neither shall the land binde and choake the Corne, nor shall the weede so ouer-runne it, but that the Husbandman may with good ease helpe to strengthen and clense it, the many furrowes both giuing him many pa.s.sages, whereby he may correct those enormities, and also in such sort conuaying away the water and other moistures, that there cannot be made any land more fruitfull.

{SN: Of the Plough.} Now to speake of the Plough which is best and most proper for this gray or white clay, of which we now speake, you shall vnderstand that it differeth exceeding much from that of which we spake concerning the blacke clay: I, and in such sort, that there is but small alliance or affinitie betweene them: as thus for example:

First, it is not so large and great as that for the blacke clay: for the head thereof is not aboue twentie inches in length, and not aboue one inch and a halfe in thicknesse, the maine beame thereof is not aboue fiue foot long, & the rest is broader by an inch and more then that for the blacke clay: this Plough also hath but one hale, & that is onely the left hand Hale: for the Plough-staffe, or Aker-staffe serueth euer in stead of the right hand Hale, so that the Rough-staues are fixed, the vpper vnto the shelboard, and the neather vnto the Plough-rest, as for your better vnderstanding you may perceiue by this figure.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The Plough with one Hale.}

Now you shall vnderstand that the especiall care which is to be held in the making of this Plough, is, that it be wide and open in the hinder part, that it may turne and lay the furrowes one vpon another: whereas if it should be any thing straitned in the hinder part, considering that this clay naturally is somewhat brittle of it selfe, and that the furrowes which you plow must of necessitie be very narrow and little, it were not possible so to lay them, but that they would fall downe backe againe, and inforce the Plow-man to lose his labour. Also you shall vnderstand that whereas in the former plough, which is for the blacke clay, you may turne the shelboard, that is, when the one end is worne, you may eftsoones turne the other, and make it serue the like season: in this Plough you must neuer turne the shelboard, because the rising wing of the Share will so defend it, that it will euer last as long as the Plough-head, without change or turning.

Now for the Irons belonging vnto this Plough, which is the Share and Coulture, there is more difference in them then in the Plough: for to speake first of the Share, whereas the former Share for the blacke clay, was made broad, plaine, and with a large wing, this Share must be made narrow, sharpe, and small, with no wing at all, hauing from the vpper part thereof, close by the shelboard, a certaine rising wing, or broad piece of Iron, which comming vp and arming that part of the shelboard which turnes ouer the land, defends the wood from the sharpe mould, which hauing the mixture of pible stone in it, would otherwise in lesse then one dayes worke consume the shelboard vnto nothing, forcing the Plow-man to much trouble and double cost. The fashion of the Share is presented in this Figure following.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The Share.}

This Share is onely made that it may take a small furrow, and so by breaking the earth oftner then any other Share, causeth the land to yeeld a good and plentifull mould, and also keepe it from binding or choaking the seede when it is cast into it.

Now for the Coulture, it differeth from the former Coulture both in breadth and thicknesse, but especially in compa.s.se: for whereas the former Coulture for the blacke clay, was made straight, narrow, and thicke, this must be compa.s.sed like an halfe bent bow: it must be broader then three fingers, and thinner then halfe an inche, according to this Figure.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The Coulture.}

Now when these Irons, the Shelboard, and other implements are fixed vnto the Plough, you shall perceiue that the Plough will carry the proportion of this Figure following.

{Ill.u.s.tration: The Plough for the gray Clay.}

Hauing thus shewed you the substance, difference, and contraries of these two Ploughs, which belong to these two seuerall clayes, the blacke and gray, you shall vnderstand that there is no clay-ground whatsoeuer, which is without other mixture, but one of these Ploughs will sufficiently serue to eare and order it: for all clayes are of one of these tempers.

{SN: The vse and handling.} Now for the vse and manner of handling or holding this Plough, it differeth nothing in particular obseruation from the vse and handling of the Plough formerly described, more then in the largenesse and smalnesse of the furrowes: for as before I said, whereas the blacke clay must be raised with a great furrow, and a broad st.i.tch, this gray clay must be raised with a small furrow, and a narrow st.i.tch: and although this plough haue nothing but a left hand Hale, yet considering the Plough-staffe, vpon which the Plow-man resteth his right hand, it is all one as if he had a right. And indeede, to make your knowledge the more perfect, you shall know that these gray clayes are generally in their owne natures so wet, tough, and slimy, and doe so clogge, cleaue, and choake vp the Plough, that hee which holds it shall haue enough to doe with his right hand onely to clense and keepe the Plough from choaking, insomuch that if there were another Hale, yet the Plow-man should haue no leasure to hold it.

{SN: Of the draught or Teame.} Now for the Draught or Teame which should draw this Plough, they ought in all points, as well in strength as tryuing to be the same with those before shewed for the vse of the blacke clay: as namely, eyther Oxen or Horse, or Horse and Oxen mixt together, according to the custome of the soile wherein the Plow-man liues, or his abilitie in prouision, obseruing euer to keepe his number of beasts for his Plough certaine, that is to say, for fallowing, and Pease-earth, neuer vnder sixe, and for all other Ardors foure at the least. And thus much for the plowing of this gray or white clay.

CHAP. VII.

_The manner of plowing the red-Sand, his Earings, Plough, and Implements._

Next vnto these Clayes, which are soiles simple and vncompound, as being perfect in their owne natures, without the helpe of other mixtures, I place the Sand soiles, as being of like qualitie, not borrowing any thing but from their owne natures, nor breeding any defects more then their owne naturall imperfections: and of Sands, sith the red Sand is the best and most fruitfull, therefore it is fit that it take prioritie of place, and be here first spoken of.

You shall then vnderstand that this red Sand, albeit it is the best of Sands, yet it is the worst of many soiles, as being of it selfe of such a hot and drie nature, that it scorcheth the seede, and dryeth vp that nutriment and fatnesse which should occasion increase: whereby it comes to pa.s.se, that the Barley which growes vpon this red Sand is euer more yealow, leane and withered, then that which growes vpon the clayes or other mixt earths. This Sand especially taketh delight in Rye, because it is a Graine which loues warmth aboue all other, and yet notwithstanding, if it be well ordered, manured and plowed, it will bring forth good store of Barley, albeit the Barley be not so good as Clay-Barley, either for the colour, or for the yeeld, whether it be in meale or in Malt.