The Elements of Geology Part 18

It is because long-continued erosion lays bare the innermost anatomy of an extinct volcano, and even sweeps away the entire pile with much of the underlying strata, thus leaving the very roots of the volcano open to view, that we are able to study underground volcanic structures. With these we include, for convenience, intrusions of molten rock which have been driven upward into the crust, but which may not have succeeded in breaking way to the surface and establishing a volcano. All these structures are built of rock forced when in a fluid or pasty state into some cavity which it has found or made, and we may cla.s.sify them therefore, according to the shape of the molds in which the molten rock has congealed, as (1) dikes, (2) volcanic necks, (3) intrusive sheets, and (4) intrusive ma.s.ses.

DIKES. The sheet of once molten rock with which a fissure has been filled is known as a dike. Dikes are formed when volcanic cones are rent by explosions or by the weight of the lava column in the duct, and on the dissection of the pile they appear as radiating vertical ribs cutting across the layers of lava and tuff of which the cone is built. In regions undergoing deformation rocks lying deep below the ground are often broken and the fissures are filled with molten rock from beneath, which finds no outlet to the surface. Such dikes are common in areas of the most ancient rocks, which have been brought to light by long erosion.

In exceptional cases dikes may reach the length of fifty or one hundred miles. They vary in width from a fraction of a foot to even as much as three hundred feet.

Dikes are commonly more fine of grain on the sides than in the center, and may have a gla.s.sy and crackled surface where they meet the inclosing rock. Can you account for this on any principle which you have learned?

VOLCANIC NECKS. The pipe of a volcano rises from far below the base of the cone,--from the deep reservoir from which its eruptions are supplied. When the volcano has become extinct this great tube remains filled with hardened lava. It forms a cylindrical core of solid rock, except for some distance below the ancient crater, where it may contain a ma.s.s of fragments which had fallen back into the chimney after being hurled into the air.

As the mountain is worn down, this central column known as the VOLCANIC NECK is left standing as a conical hill (Fig. 240). Even when every other trace of the volcano has been swept away, erosion will not have pa.s.sed below this great stalk on which the volcano was borne as a fiery flower whose site it remains to mark. In volcanic regions of deep denudation volcanic necks rise solitary and abrupt from the surrounding country as dome-shaped hills. They are marked features in the landscape in parts of Scotland and in the St. Lawrence valley about Montreal (Fig. 241).

INTRUSIVE SHEETS. Sheets of igneous rocks are sometimes found interleaved with sedimentary strata, especially in regions where the rocks have been deformed and have suffered from volcanic action. In some instances such a sheet is seen to be CONTEMPORANEOUS (p. 248). In other instances the sheet must be INTRUSIVE. The overlying stratum, as well as that beneath, has been affected by the heat of the once molten rock. We infer that the igneous rock when in a molten state was forced between the strata, much as a card may be pushed between the leaves of a closed book. The liquid wedged its way between the layers, lifting those above to make room for itself. The source of the intrusive sheet may often be traced to some dike (known therefore as the FEEDING DIKE), or to some ma.s.s of igneous rock.

Intrusive sheets may extend a score and more of miles, and, like the longest surface flows, the most extensive sheets consist of the more fusible and fluid lavas,--those of the basic cla.s.s of which basalt is an example. Intrusive sheets are usually harder than the strata in which they lie and are therefore often left in relief after long denudation of the region (Fig. 315).

On the west bank of the Hudson there extends from New York Bay north for thirty miles a bold cliff several hundred feet high,-- the PALISADES OF THE HUDSON. It is the outcropping edge of a sheet of ancient igneous rock, which rests on stratified sandstones and is overlain by strata of the same series. Sandstones and lava sheet together dip gently to the west arid the latter disappears from view two miles back from the river.

It is an interesting question whether the Palisades sheet is CONTEMPORANEOUS or INTRUSIVE. Was it outpoured on the sandstones beneath it when they formed the floor of the sea, and covered forthwith by the sediments of the strata above, or was it intruded among these beds at a later date?

The latter is the case: for the overlying stratum is intensely baked along the zone of contact. At the west edge of the sheet is found the dike in which the lava rose to force its way far and wide between the strata.

ELECTRIC PEAK, one of the prominent mountains of the Yellowstone National Park, is carved out of a ma.s.s of strata into which many sheets of molten rock have been intruded. The western summit consists of such a sheet several hundred feet thick. Studying the section of Figure 244, what inference do you draw as to the source of these intrusive sheets?

INTRUSIVE Ma.s.sES

BOSSES. This name is generally applied to huge irregular ma.s.ses of coa.r.s.ely crystalline igneous rock lying in the midst of other formations. Bosses vary greatly in size and may reach scores of miles in extent. Seldom are there any evidences found that bosses ever had connection with the surface. On the other hand, it is often proved that they have been driven, or have melted their way, upward into the formations in which they lie; for they give off dikes and intrusive sheets, and have profoundly altered the rocks about them by their heat.

The texture of the rock of bosses proves that consolidation proceeded slowly and at great depths, and it is only because of vast denudation that they are now exposed to view. Bosses are commonly harder than the rocks about them, and stand up, therefore, as rounded hills and mountainous ridges long after the surrounding country has worn to a low plain.

The base of bosses is indefinite or undetermined, and in this respect they differ from laccoliths. Some bosses have broken and faulted the overlying beds; some have forced the rocks aside and melted them away.

The SPANISH PEAKS of southeastern Colorado were formed by the upthrust of immense ma.s.ses of igneous rock, bulging and breaking the overlying strata. On one side of the mountains the throw of the fault is nearly a mile, and fragments of deep-lying beds were dragged upward by the rising ma.s.ses. The adjacent rocks were altered by heat to a distance of several thousand feet. No evidence appears that the molten rock ever reached the surface, and if volcanic eruptions ever took place either in lava flows or fragmental materials, all traces of them have been effaced. The rock of the intrusive ma.s.ses is coa.r.s.ely crystalline, and no doubt solidified slowly under the pressure of vast thicknesses of overlying rock, now mostly removed by erosion.

A magnificent system of dikes radiates from the Peaks to a distance of fifteen miles, some now being left by long erosion as walls a hundred feet in height (Fig. 239). Intrusive sheets fed by the dikes penetrate the surrounding strata, and their edges are cut by canyons as much as twenty-five miles from the mountain. In these strata are valuable beds of lignite, an imperfect coal, which the heat of dikes and sheets has changed to c.o.ke.

LACCOLITHS. The laccolith (Greek laccos, cistern; lithos, stone) is a variety of intrusive ma.s.ses in which molten rock has spread between the strata, and, lifting the strata above it to a dome- shaped form, has collected beneath them in a lens-shaped body with a flat base.

The HENRY MOUNTAINS, a small group of detached peaks in southern Utah, rise from a plateau of horizontal rocks. Some of the peaks are carved wholly in separate domelike uplifts of the strata of the plateau. In others, as Mount Hillers, the largest of the group, there is exposed on the summit a core of igneous rock from which the sedimentary rocks of the flanks dip steeply outward in all directions. In still others erosion has stripped off the covering strata and has laid bare the core to its base; and its shape is here seen to be that of a plano-convex lens or a baker's bun, its flat base resting on the undisturbed bedded rocks beneath. The structure of Mount Hillers is shown in Figure 248.

The nucleus of igneous rock is four miles in diameter and more than a mile in depth.

REGIONAL INTRUSIONS. These vast bodies of igneous rock, which may reach hundreds of miles in diameter, differ little from bosses except in their immense bulk. Like bosses, regional intrusions give off dikes and sheets and greatly change the rocks about them by their heat. They are now exposed to view only because of the profound denudation which has removed the upheaved dome of rocks beneath which they slowly cooled. Such intrusions are accompanied --whether as cause or as effect is still hardly known--by deformations, and their ma.s.ses of igneous rock are thus found as the core of many great mountain ranges. The granitic ma.s.ses of which the Bitter Root Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas have been largely carved are each more than three hundred miles in length.

Immense regional intrusions, the cores of once lofty mountain ranges, are found upon the Laurentian peneplain.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC EFFECTS OF INTRUSIVE Ma.s.sES. We have already seen examples of the topographic effects of intrusive ma.s.ses in Mount Hillers, the Spanish Peaks, and in the great mountain ranges mentioned in the paragraph on regional intrusions, although in the latter instances these effects are entangled with the effects of other processes. Ma.s.ses of igneous rock cannot be intruded within the crust without an accompanying deformation on a scale corresponding to the bulk of the intruded ma.s.s. The overlying strata are arched into hills or mountains, or, if the molten material is of great extent, the strata may conceivably be floated upward to the height of a plateau. We may suppose that the transference of molten matter from one region to another may be among the causes of slow subsidences and elevations. Intrusions give rise to fissures, dikes, and intrusive sheets, and these dislocations cannot fail to produce earthquakes. Where intrusive ma.s.ses open communication with the surface, volcanoes are established or fissure eruptions occur such as those of Iceland.

THE INTRUSIVE ROCKS

The igneous rocks are divided into two general cla.s.ses,--the VOLCANIC or ERUPTIVE rocks, which have been outpoured in open air or on the floor of the sea, and the INTRUSIVE rocks, which have been intruded within the rocks of the crust and have solidified below the surface. The two cla.s.ses are alike in chemical composition and may be divided into acidic and basic groups. In texture the intrusive rocks differ from the volcanic rocks because of the different conditions under which they have solidified. They cooled far more slowly beneath the cover of the rocks into which they were pressed than is permitted to lava flows in open air.

Their const.i.tuent minerals had ample opportunity to sort themselves and crystallize from the fluid mixture, and none of that mixture was left to congeal as a gla.s.sy paste.

They consolidated also under pressure. They are never scoriaceous, for the steam with which they were charged was not allowed to expand and distend them with steam blebs. In the rocks of the larger intrusive ma.s.ses one may see with a powerful microscope exceedingly minute cavities, to be counted by many millions to the cubic inch, in which the gaseous water which the ma.s.s contained was held imprisoned under the immense pressure of the overlying rocks.

Naturally these characteristics are best developed in the intrusives which cooled most slowly, i.e. in the deepest-seated and largest ma.s.ses; while in those which cooled more rapidly, as in dikes and sheets, we find gradations approaching the texture of surface flows.

VARIETIES OF THE INTRUSIVE ROCKS. We will now describe a few of the varieties of rocks of deep-seated intrusions. All are even grained, consisting of a ma.s.s of crystalline grains formed during one continuous stage of solidification, and no porphyritic crystals appear as in lavas.

GRANITE, as we have learned already, is composed of three minerals,--quartz, feldspar, and mica. According to the color of the feldspar the rock may be red, or pink, or gray. Hornblende--a black or dark green mineral, an iron-magnesian silicate, about as hard as feldspar--is sometimes found as a fourth const.i.tuent, and the rock is then known as HORNBLENDIC GRANITE. Granite is an acidic rock corresponding to rhyolite in chemical composition. We may believe that the same molten ma.s.s which supplies this acidic lava in surface flows solidifies as granite deep below ground in the volcanic reservoir.

SYENITE, composed of feldspar and mica, has consolidated from a less siliceous mixture than has granite.

DIORITE, still less siliceous, is composed of hornblende and feldspar,--the latter mineral being of different variety from the feldspar of granite and syenite.

GABBRO, a typical basic rock, corresponds to basalt in chemical composition. It is a dark, heavy, coa.r.s.ely crystalline aggregate of feldspar and AUGITE (a dark mineral allied to hornblende). It often contains MAGNEt.i.tE (the magnetic black oxide of iron) and OLIVINE (a greenish magnesian silicate).

In the northern states all these types, and many others also of the vast number of varieties of intrusive rocks, can be found among the rocks of the drift brought from the areas of igneous rock in Canada and the states of our northern border.

SUMMARY. The records of geology prove that since the earliest of their annals tremendous forces have been active in the earth. In all the past, under pressures inconceivably great, molten rock has been driven upward into the rocks of the crust. It has squeezed into fissures forming dikes; it has burrowed among the strata as intrusive sheets; it has melted the rocks away or lifted the overlying strata, filling the chambers which it has made with intrusive ma.s.ses. During all geological ages molten rock has found way to the surface, and volcanoes have darkened the sky with clouds of ashes and poured streams of glowing lava down their sides. The older strata,--the strata which have been most deeply buried,--and especially those which have suffered most from folding and from fracture, show the largest amount of igneous intrusions. The molten rock which has been driven from the earth's interior to within the crust or to the surface during geologic time must be reckoned in millions of cubic miles.

THE INTERIOR CONDITION OF THE EARTH AND CAUSES OF VULCANISM AND DEFORMATION

The problems of volcanoes and of deformation are so closely connected with that of the earth's interior that we may consider them together. Few of these problems are solved, and we may only state some known facts and the probable conclusions which may be drawn as inferences from them.

THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH IS HOT. Volcanoes prove that in many parts of the earth there exist within reach of the surface regions of such intense heat that the rock is in a molten condition. Deep wells and mines show everywhere an increase in temperature below the surface sh.e.l.l affected by the heat of summer and the cold of winter,--a sh.e.l.l in temperate lat.i.tudes sixty or seventy feet thick. Thus in a boring more than a mile deep at Schladebach, Germany, the earth grows warmer at the rate of 1 degrees F. for every sixty-seven feet as we descend. Taking the average rate of increase at one degree for every sixty feet of descent, and a.s.suming that this rate, observed at the moderate distances open to observation, continues to at least thirty-five miles, the temperature at that depth must be more than three thousand degrees,--a temperature at which all ordinary rocks would melt at the earth's surface. The rate of increase in temperature probably lessens as we go downward, and it may not be appreciable below a few hundred miles. But there is no reason to doubt that THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH IS INTENSELY HOT. Below a depth of one or two score miles we may imagine the rocks everywhere glowing with heat.

Although the heat of the interior is great enough to melt all rocks at atmospheric pressure, it does not follow that the interior is fluid. Pressure raises the fusing point of rocks, and the weight of the crust may keep the interior in what may be called a solid state, although so hot as to be a liquid or a gas were the pressure to be removed.

THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH IS RIGID AND HEAVY. The earth behaves as a globe more rigid than gla.s.s under the attractions of the sun and moon. It is not deformed by these stresses as is the ocean in the tides, proving that it is not a fluid ball covered with a yielding crust a few miles thick. Earthquakes pa.s.s through the earth faster than they would were it of solid steel. Hence the rocks of the interior are highly elastic, being brought by pressure to a compact, continuous condition unbroken by the cracks and vesicles of surface rocks. THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH IS RIGID

The common rocks of the crust are about two and a half times heavier than water, while the earth as a whole weighs five and six-tenths times as much as a globe of water of the same size. THE INTERIOR IS THEREFORE MUCH MORE HEAVY THAN THE CRUST. This may be caused in part by compression of the interior under the enormous weight of the crust, and in part also by an a.s.sortment of material, the heavier substances, such as the heavy metals, having gravitated towards the center.

Between the crust, which is solid because it is cool, and the interior, which is hot enough to melt were it not for the pressure which keeps it dense and rigid, there may be an intermediate zone in which heat and pressure are so evenly balanced that here rock liquefies whenever and wherever the pressure upon it may be relieved by movements of the crust. It is perhaps from such a subcrustal layer that the lava of volcanoes is supplied.

THE CAUSES OF VOLCANIC ACTION. It is now generally believed that the HEAT of volcanoes is that of the earth's interior. Other causes, such as friction and crushing in the making of mountains and the chemical reactions between oxidizing agents of the crust and the unoxidized interior, have been suggested, but to most geologists they seem inadequate.

There is much difference of opinion as to the FORCE which causes molten rock to rise to the surface in the ducts of volcanoes.

Steam is so evidently concerned in explosive eruptions that many believe that lava is driven upward by the expansive force of the steam with which it is charged, much as a viscid liquid rises and boils over in a test tube or kettle.

But in quiet eruptions, and still more in the irruption of intrusive sheets and ma.s.ses, there is little if any evidence that steam is the driving force. It is therefore believed by many geologists that it is PRESSURE DUE TO CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS AND INTERNAL STRESSES which squeezes molten rock from below into fissures and ducts in the crust. It is held by some that where considerable water is supplied to the rising column of lava, as from the ground water of the surrounding region, and where the lava is viscid so that steam does not readily escape, the eruption is of the explosive type; when these conditions do not obtain, the lava outwells quietly, as in the Hawaiian volcanoes. It is held by others not only that volcanoes are due to the outflow of the earth's deep-seated heat, but also that the steam and other emitted gases are for the most part native to the earth's interior and never have had place in the circulation of atmospheric and ground waters.

VOLCANIC ACTION AND DEFORMATION. Volcanoes do not occur on wide plains or among ancient mountains. On the other hand, where movements of the earth's crust are in progress in the uplift of high plateaus, and still more in mountain making, molten rock may reach the surface, or may be driven upward toward it forming great intrusive ma.s.ses. Thus extensive lava flows accompanied the upheaval of the block mountains of western North America and the uplift of the Colorado plateau. A line of recent volcanoes may be traced along the system of rift valleys which extends from the Jordan and Dead Sea through eastern Africa to Lake Nya.s.sa. The volcanoes of the Andes show how conspicuous volcanic action may be in young rising ranges. Folded mountains often show a core of igneous rock, which by long erosion has come to form the axis and the highest peaks of the range, as if the molten rock had been squeezed up under the rising upfolds. As we decipher the records of the rocks in historical geology we shall see more fully how, in all the past, volcanic action has characterized the periods of great crustal movements, and how it has been absent when and where the earth's crust has remained comparatively at rest.

THE CAUSES OF DEFORMATION. As the earth's interior, or nucleus, is highly heated it must be constantly though slowly losing its heat by conduction through the crust and into s.p.a.ce; and since the nucleus is cooling it must also be contracting. The nucleus has contracted also because of the extrusion of molten matter, the loss of const.i.tuent gases given off in volcanic eruptions, and (still more important) the compression and consolidation of its material under gravity. As the nucleus contracts, it tends to draw away from the cooled and solid crust, and the latter settles, adapting itself to the shrinking nucleus much as the skin of a withering apple wrinkles down upon the shrunken fruit. The unsupported weight of the spherical crust develops enormous tangential pressures, similar to the stresses of an arch or dome, and when these lateral thrusts acc.u.mulate beyond the power of resistance the solid rock is warped and folded and broken.

Since the planet attained its present ma.s.s it has thus been lessening in volume. Notwithstanding local and relative upheavals the earth's surface on the whole has drawn nearer and nearer to the center. The portions of the lithosphere which have been carried down the farthest have received the waters of the oceans, while those portions which have been carried down the least have emerged as continents.

Although it serves our convenience to refer the movements of the crust to the sea level as datum plane, it is understood that this level is by no means fixed. Changes in the ocean basins increase or reduce their capacity and thus lower or raise the level of the sea. But since these basins are connected, the effect of any change upon the water level is so distributed that it is far less noticeable than a corresponding change would be upon the land.