The Battle For Christmas Part 7

30. Samuel Sewall, Samuel Sewall, The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 16741729 The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 16741729. (2 vols., New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1973), I, 90 (Dec. 25 and 28, 1685); 1, 128 (Dec. 25, 1686).

31. John Tully, "Tully 1687. An Almanac" (Boston, 1687); John Tully, "Tully 1688. An Almanac ... John Tully, "Tully 1687. An Almanac" (Boston, 1687); John Tully, "Tully 1688. An Almanac ... Imprimatur Imprimatur Edw. Randolph, Secr." (Boston, 1688). Edw. Randolph, Secr." (Boston, 1688).

32. Ibid., 1522. Selections from these prognostications are reprinted in Harrison T. Meserole, ed., Ibid., 1522. Selections from these prognostications are reprinted in Harrison T. Meserole, ed., Seventeenth-Century American Poetry Seventeenth-Century American Poetry (Stuart Editions, N.Y.: New York University Press, 1968), 512515. The copy of this almanac I have used (from the "Early American Imprints" series on microfilm) was purchased and used by Samuel Sewall himself. Other copies lack the "Prognostications," which may have been copied from an English almanac. There is a good discussion of early New England almanacs, and Tully's in particular, in Hall, (Stuart Editions, N.Y.: New York University Press, 1968), 512515. The copy of this almanac I have used (from the "Early American Imprints" series on microfilm) was purchased and used by Samuel Sewall himself. Other copies lack the "Prognostications," which may have been copied from an English almanac. There is a good discussion of early New England almanacs, and Tully's in particular, in Hall, Worlds of Wonder Worlds of Wonder, 5461. See also Bernard Capp, English Almanacs, 15001800: Astrology and the Popular Press English Almanacs, 15001800: Astrology and the Popular Press (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979). (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979).

33. Mather wrote: "The impious and mischievous men, against whom the Inspired Writer is now engaged [in the sermons text, are guilty of the following:] First The UnG.o.dly Men stand charged with Filthiness. They were, that I may use the most agreeable Term, which the French Translation leads me to, A very Mather wrote: "The impious and mischievous men, against whom the Inspired Writer is now engaged [in the sermons text, are guilty of the following:] First The UnG.o.dly Men stand charged with Filthiness. They were, that I may use the most agreeable Term, which the French Translation leads me to, A very Dissolute Dissolute Generation. I take notice, by the way, that the Greek term, here used for, Generation. I take notice, by the way, that the Greek term, here used for, Lasciviousness Lasciviousness, or Wantonness Wantonness, is derived from the name of the town Selga; Selga; a Place infamous for such dissolute Practices." He concluded this series of euphemisms by admitting, "I am lothe here to explain my self too particularly." C. Mather, a Place infamous for such dissolute Practices." He concluded this series of euphemisms by admitting, "I am lothe here to explain my self too particularly." C. Mather, Grace Defended, Grace Defended, 2 2.

34. Cotton Mather, Cotton Mather, Advice from the Watch-Tower; in a testimony against evil customes. A brief essay to ... offer a ... catalogue of evil customes growing upon us Advice from the Watch-Tower; in a testimony against evil customes. A brief essay to ... offer a ... catalogue of evil customes growing upon us (Boston, 1713), 3140. (Boston, 1713), 3140.

35. Ibid., 3435. Ibid., 3435.

36. See John Demos, "Families in Colonial Bristol, Rhode Island: An Exercise in Historical Demography," in See John Demos, "Families in Colonial Bristol, Rhode Island: An Exercise in Historical Demography," in William and Mary Quarterly William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 25 (1968), 5657. The seasonal rhythm of conceptions is from a paper delivered by Kenneth Lockridge at SUNY, Stony Brook, in 1969. For a fine account of premarital s.e.x and marriage at the end of the eighteenth century, see Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 17851812 A Midwife's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 17851812 (New York: Knopf, 1990), 134161. The laments of such ministers as Cotton Mather have conventionally been interpreted as mere "jeremiads," an irrational response to the decline of Puritanism. But recent scholarship supports my own sense that these were part of a reasonable response to the reemergence of popular culture in New England. The best recent study is Gildrie, (New York: Knopf, 1990), 134161. The laments of such ministers as Cotton Mather have conventionally been interpreted as mere "jeremiads," an irrational response to the decline of Puritanism. But recent scholarship supports my own sense that these were part of a reasonable response to the reemergence of popular culture in New England. The best recent study is Gildrie, The Profane, the Civil, and the G.o.dly The Profane, the Civil, and the G.o.dly. This is the only work which shows that Christmas itself was making a comeback at the turn of the eighteenth century.

37. William Brattle, "An Ephemeris ... for ... 1682 (Cambridge, 1682). The verse actually concluded with a couplet that ridiculed those who believed its message. William Brattle, "An Ephemeris ... for ... 1682 (Cambridge, 1682). The verse actually concluded with a couplet that ridiculed those who believed its message.

38. t.i.tan Leeds, "The American Almanac for ... 1714" (Boston 1714). This was a Boston reprint of a Philadelphia imprint. t.i.tan Leeds, "The American Almanac for ... 1714" (Boston 1714). This was a Boston reprint of a Philadelphia imprint.

39. Samuel Clough, "The New-England Almanack" (Boston, 1702); Nathaniel Whittemore, "An Almanac" (Boston, 1719). Samuel Clough, "The New-England Almanack" (Boston, 1702); Nathaniel Whittemore, "An Almanac" (Boston, 1719).

40. Nathanael Ames, "An Astronomical Almanac for ... 1749" (Boston, [1748]); George Wheten, "An Almanac for ... 1754" (Boston, [1753]). Nathanael Ames, "An Astronomical Almanac for ... 1749" (Boston, [1748]); George Wheten, "An Almanac for ... 1754" (Boston, [1753]).

41. Nathaniel Whittemore, "Almanac" (Boston, 1719). It is interesting that this admonition does not challenge the legitimacy of the ritual. By warning householders not to let their dependents "run Nathaniel Whittemore, "Almanac" (Boston, 1719). It is interesting that this admonition does not challenge the legitimacy of the ritual. By warning householders not to let their dependents "run too much too much abroad at Nights," it seems only to be admonishing them not to stay out abroad at Nights," it seems only to be admonishing them not to stay out all night all night, or every night every night.

42. Nathanael Ames, "An Almanac for ... 1746" (Boston, 1746). Nathanael Ames, "An Almanac for ... 1746" (Boston, 1746).

43. Historians once believed that "Yankee Doodle" was the work of British soldiers who were satirizing New England rustic manners, but it now seems likely that its words were a local American product:-a kind of sophisticated rural self-parody. Evidence also suggests that the earliest of these verses date not from the era of the American Revolution but from a full generation earlier-from the early 1740s. The preeminent argument for the American origins of the verse is J. A. Leo Lemay, "The American Origins of 'Yankee Doodle,'" Historians once believed that "Yankee Doodle" was the work of British soldiers who were satirizing New England rustic manners, but it now seems likely that its words were a local American product:-a kind of sophisticated rural self-parody. Evidence also suggests that the earliest of these verses date not from the era of the American Revolution but from a full generation earlier-from the early 1740s. The preeminent argument for the American origins of the verse is J. A. Leo Lemay, "The American Origins of 'Yankee Doodle,'" William and Mary Quarterly William and Mary Quarterly, 33 (1976), 435464. Lemay dates at least some of the verses to the 1740s (even though they were not actually published until the late 1760s and 1770s and later), using references to events that took place in King George's War, especially the capture of Louisburg (on Cape Breton) in 1745 (ibid. 443447).

44. This verse-and several others cited below-comes from a version of "Yankee Doodle" called "The Lexington March," published in London, probably in 1775 (the only copy is owned by the Huntington Library). For evidence that these verses were of American composition, see Lemay, "Yankee Doodle," 436438.

45. For election day: "Lection time is now at hand, / We're going to Uncle Chace's, / There'l be some a drinking round / And some lapping la.s.ses." For election day: "Lection time is now at hand, / We're going to Uncle Chace's, / There'l be some a drinking round / And some lapping la.s.ses." (Yankee Song (Yankee Song Broadside, Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute; quoted in Lemay, "Yankee Doodle," 450. For cornhusking: "Yankee Song" (owned by Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute), quoted ibid., 448. For a late-eighteenth-century rural New England diary that records the a.s.sociation of cornhuskings with "abandoned drinking and s.e.xual liaisons," see Ulrich, Broadside, Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute; quoted in Lemay, "Yankee Doodle," 450. For cornhusking: "Yankee Song" (owned by Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute), quoted ibid., 448. For a late-eighteenth-century rural New England diary that records the a.s.sociation of cornhuskings with "abandoned drinking and s.e.xual liaisons," see Ulrich, Midwife's Tale Midwife's Tale, 146147.

46. This verse is from "The Lexington March" (Huntington Library copy). "Mother Chase's" corresponds to "Uncle Chace's" in the election verse quoted in the previous note. The verse quoted above continues with the following: "Punkin Pye is very good / And so is Apple Lantern; / Had you been whipp'd as oft as I, / You'd not have been so wanton." This verse is from "The Lexington March" (Huntington Library copy). "Mother Chase's" corresponds to "Uncle Chace's" in the election verse quoted in the previous note. The verse quoted above continues with the following: "Punkin Pye is very good / And so is Apple Lantern; / Had you been whipp'd as oft as I, / You'd not have been so wanton."

47. Mather relegated to a footnote in the published text of this sermon (probably an indication that it was not part of the sermon as he originally delivered it in church) his demonstration that Jesus could not have been born in December. Mather relegated to a footnote in the published text of this sermon (probably an indication that it was not part of the sermon as he originally delivered it in church) his demonstration that Jesus could not have been born in December.

48. Mather, Mather, Grace Defended Grace Defended, 19.

49. As early as 1706, Daniel Leeds warned in an almanac published in New York that "More health is gotten by observing diet / Than pleasure found in vain excess and Riot." (Lines at Dec. 2629; in Daniel Leeds, As early as 1706, Daniel Leeds warned in an almanac published in New York that "More health is gotten by observing diet / Than pleasure found in vain excess and Riot." (Lines at Dec. 2629; in Daniel Leeds, Leeds, 1760. The American Almanack Leeds, 1760. The American Almanack [New York, 1706].) Twenty years later, in a Philadelphia almanac, his son t.i.tan Leeds attacked both gambling and "surfeiting." (t.i.tan Leeds, [New York, 1706].) Twenty years later, in a Philadelphia almanac, his son t.i.tan Leeds attacked both gambling and "surfeiting." (t.i.tan Leeds, The American Almanack for ... 1726 The American Almanack for ... 1726 [Philadelphia, (1705)].) [Philadelphia, (1705)].) 50. Other New England almanacs, while not sounding the dietary urgency of Nathanael Ames, typically combined notes of moderation with those of mirth, as when the "Bickerstaffe" almanac for 1777 a.s.sured its readers that "to keep your stomach warm / A moderate gla.s.s can do no harm." ([Ezra Gleason, Other New England almanacs, while not sounding the dietary urgency of Nathanael Ames, typically combined notes of moderation with those of mirth, as when the "Bickerstaffe" almanac for 1777 a.s.sured its readers that "to keep your stomach warm / A moderate gla.s.s can do no harm." ([Ezra Gleason, Bickerstaffe's Boston Almanack, for... Bickerstaffe's Boston Almanack, for... 1777 1777 [Boston, 1777].) [Boston, 1777].) 51. As Eric Foner has pointed out, Franklin urged men like himself "to remember that 'time is money,' and condemned [the old] practice of observing the traditional pre-industrial 'holiday' of 'Saint Monday' and spending the day at the alehouse." (Eric Foner, As Eric Foner has pointed out, Franklin urged men like himself "to remember that 'time is money,' and condemned [the old] practice of observing the traditional pre-industrial 'holiday' of 'Saint Monday' and spending the day at the alehouse." (Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 35). Another self-made New Englander who urged temperance in his almanacs is Roger Sherman of Connecticut. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 35). Another self-made New Englander who urged temperance in his almanacs is Roger Sherman of Connecticut.

52. Robert R. McCausland and Cynthia MacAlman McCausland, eds., Robert R. McCausland and Cynthia MacAlman McCausland, eds., The Diary of Martha Ballard 17851812 The Diary of Martha Ballard 17851812 (Camden, Maine: Picton Press, 1992), 742 (1807); 828 (1810); 852 (1811). (Camden, Maine: Picton Press, 1992), 742 (1807); 828 (1810); 852 (1811).

53. Ibid., 565. "Ephraim" and "Cyrus" were Martha Ballard's still-unmarried sons; Patty Town was a grown-up granddaughter who was spending a few months at her grandmother's in order to help with the housework (see entries from Oct. 15, 1801, to Feb. 8, 1802, ibid., 559569 pa.s.sim). Cyrus Ballard remained a bachelor all his life. Ibid., 565. "Ephraim" and "Cyrus" were Martha Ballard's still-unmarried sons; Patty Town was a grown-up granddaughter who was spending a few months at her grandmother's in order to help with the housework (see entries from Oct. 15, 1801, to Feb. 8, 1802, ibid., 559569 pa.s.sim). Cyrus Ballard remained a bachelor all his life.

54. Ibid., 320. For Dolly and Sally c.o.x, see Ulrich, Ibid., 320. For Dolly and Sally c.o.x, see Ulrich, A Midwife's Tale A Midwife's Tale, 144145, 220221. Only a few months later Barnabas Lambard would marry Martha Ballard's daughter Dollie.

55. Ballard, Ballard, Diary Diary, 320 (Daniel Bolton); 217 (Mrs. Lithgow); 596 ("pumkin and apple pies" and clothes-mending); 624 ("puding and roast").

56. Ibid., 217 (1791); 770 (1808); 771 ("childn here"). Ibid., 217 (1791); 770 (1808); 771 ("childn here").

57. Ibid., 714. A goose was clearly a special gift, and a seasonal one at that. According to the index to the published diary, there is only one record of a goose in the entire doc.u.ment; but the index is inadequate, failing to note either this New Year's goose or a Thanks giving goose mentioned on page 621. Ibid., 714. A goose was clearly a special gift, and a seasonal one at that. According to the index to the published diary, there is only one record of a goose in the entire doc.u.ment; but the index is inadequate, failing to note either this New Year's goose or a Thanks giving goose mentioned on page 621.

58. Ibid., 743. For further examples, see entries for Dec. 24, 1808, Dec. 30, 1810, and Dec. 22, 1811. Ibid., 743. For further examples, see entries for Dec. 24, 1808, Dec. 30, 1810, and Dec. 22, 1811.

59. Ibid., 770. Ibid., 770.

60. Ibid., 396. This is the first example I have found in the history of New England of a commercial Christmas present. But see Ibid., 396. This is the first example I have found in the history of New England of a commercial Christmas present. But see Chapter 4 Chapter 4, p. 133.

61. Milton wrote this poem as a young man, in 1629, but he remained sufficiently proud of it to place it first in a later collection of his poetry. Milton wrote this poem as a young man, in 1629, but he remained sufficiently proud of it to place it first in a later collection of his poetry.

62. Increase Mather, ma.n.u.script diary, Dec. 19, 1664 (in Mather Family Papers, American Antiquarian Society, Diary Typescript: Box 3, Folder 1, 4849). I have inferred the subject of Mather's sermon from circ.u.mstantial evidence. Much of his reading the previous week (as recorded in his diary) had dealt historically and critically with Christmas. It included Rudolf Hospinian, Increase Mather, ma.n.u.script diary, Dec. 19, 1664 (in Mather Family Papers, American Antiquarian Society, Diary Typescript: Box 3, Folder 1, 4849). I have inferred the subject of Mather's sermon from circ.u.mstantial evidence. Much of his reading the previous week (as recorded in his diary) had dealt historically and critically with Christmas. It included Rudolf Hospinian, De Festiorum De Festiorum (Tiguri, 1592), William Prynne, (Tiguri, 1592), William Prynne, Histrio-Mastix Histrio-Mastix (London, 1633), and two references I have not been able to trace: Stuckins' [?] (London, 1633), and two references I have not been able to trace: Stuckins' [?] De Antiq De Antiq. and Caudrey, De Christma.s.s De Christma.s.s (the reading is recorded in the entries for Dec. 1214, 1664). This episode is alluded to in Michael G. Hall, (the reading is recorded in the entries for Dec. 1214, 1664). This episode is alluded to in Michael G. Hall, The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather, 16391723 The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather, 16391723 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 66. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 66.

63. J.B. [Joseph Browne], "An Almanac ... for ... 1669" (Cambridge, 1669); J.D. [John Danforth], "An Almanac ... for ... 1679" (Cambridge, 1679). J.B. [Joseph Browne], "An Almanac ... for ... 1669" (Cambridge, 1669); J.D. [John Danforth], "An Almanac ... for ... 1679" (Cambridge, 1679).

64. Edward Holyoke, "An Almanac ... for ... 1713" (Boston, 1713: "Licensed by His Excellency the Governour"); t.i.tan Leeds, "The American Almanac for ... 1714" (Boston, 1714); Increase Gatch.e.l.l, "The Young American Ephemera for ... 1715" (Boston, 1715). The James Franklin almanacs are: Poor Robin, "The Rhode Island Almanac for ... 1728 (Newport, 1728) and "The Rhode Island Almanac for ... 1729" (Newport, 1729). In his Boston newspaper, the Edward Holyoke, "An Almanac ... for ... 1713" (Boston, 1713: "Licensed by His Excellency the Governour"); t.i.tan Leeds, "The American Almanac for ... 1714" (Boston, 1714); Increase Gatch.e.l.l, "The Young American Ephemera for ... 1715" (Boston, 1715). The James Franklin almanacs are: Poor Robin, "The Rhode Island Almanac for ... 1728 (Newport, 1728) and "The Rhode Island Almanac for ... 1729" (Newport, 1729). In his Boston newspaper, the New England Courant New England Courant, Franklin had featured a front-page poem in defense of Christmas in the issue of Dec. 1724, 1722.

65. Nathanael Ames, "An Almanac for ... 1760" (Boston, 1759). The ads are in the Nathanael Ames, "An Almanac for ... 1760" (Boston, 1759). The ads are in the Boston Post-Boy Boston Post-Boy, Dec. 3, 1759 and the Boston News-Letter Boston News-Letter, Dec. 6, 1759.

66. Roger Sherman, Roger Sherman, An Astronomical Diary ... for ... 1758 An Astronomical Diary ... for ... 1758 (New Haven, 1758), 1. (New Haven, 1758), 1.

67. Purcell set many of Tate's poems to music, including what may be his greatest vocal solo, "The Blessed Virgin's Expostulation." Nicholas Brady wrote the libretto to Purcell's 1692 "Ode for St. Cecilia's Day." Purcell set many of Tate's poems to music, including what may be his greatest vocal solo, "The Blessed Virgin's Expostulation." Nicholas Brady wrote the libretto to Purcell's 1692 "Ode for St. Cecilia's Day."

68. Nicholas Brady and Nahum Tate, Nicholas Brady and Nahum Tate, A New Version of the Psalms of David, Fitted to the Tunes Used in the Churches A New Version of the Psalms of David, Fitted to the Tunes Used in the Churches (Boston, 1720). The printing history of this collection can be traced most easily through Clifford K. Shipton and James E. Mooney, (Boston, 1720). The printing history of this collection can be traced most easily through Clifford K. Shipton and James E. Mooney, National Index of American Imprints Through 1800: The Short-t.i.tle Evans National Index of American Imprints Through 1800: The Short-t.i.tle Evans (2 vols., Worcester: American Antiquarian Society, 1969). On Dec. 24, 1722, James Franklin printed two other Christmas hymns in his Boston newspaper, the (2 vols., Worcester: American Antiquarian Society, 1969). On Dec. 24, 1722, James Franklin printed two other Christmas hymns in his Boston newspaper, the New England Courant New England Courant.

69. Isaac Watts, Isaac Watts, Hymns and Spiritual Songs Hymns and Spiritual Songs (Boston, 1720). One of these Nativity hymns was placed third in this lengthy collection (It opens: "Behold, the grace appears, /The promise is fulfilled; / Mary the wondrous virgin bears, / And Jesus is the child." It also reports that the "promis'd infant" is "born to day"). The second hymn, from (Boston, 1720). One of these Nativity hymns was placed third in this lengthy collection (It opens: "Behold, the grace appears, /The promise is fulfilled; / Mary the wondrous virgin bears, / And Jesus is the child." It also reports that the "promis'd infant" is "born to day"). The second hymn, from Horae Lyricae Horae Lyricae [Lyric Poems] (Boston, 1748), begins: "Shepards rejoice, lift up your eyes." [Lyric Poems] (Boston, 1748), begins: "Shepards rejoice, lift up your eyes."

70. Joseph T. Buckingham, Joseph T. Buckingham, Personal Memoirs and Recollections of Editorial Life Personal Memoirs and Recollections of Editorial Life (2 vols., Boston, 1852), 1, 19; quoted in Hall, (2 vols., Boston, 1852), 1, 19; quoted in Hall, Worlds of Wonder Worlds of Wonder, 37. The folklorist Peter Benes has estimated that by 1780 almost half of the New England churches were singing the Watts version; another 25 percent were using Tate and Brady; and most of the remaining churches were singing from the old Bay Psalm Book. (Peter Benes, "Psalmody in Coastal Ma.s.sachusetts and the Connecticut River Valley," in The Bay and the River, 16001900 (Annual proceedings of the Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife The Bay and the River, 16001900 (Annual proceedings of the Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife, vol. 6 [Boston: Boston University, 1982], 117131; esp. 125.) Like the Anglicans Brady and Tate, the great English hymnist and religious poet Isaac Watts (16741748), though a steadfast Congregationalist, designed his verses to evoke powerful emotions rather than to offer plain and strictly faithful translations of the original biblical texts.

71. William Knapp, "An Hymn on the Nativity," in Thomas Walter, William Knapp, "An Hymn on the Nativity," in Thomas Walter, The Grounds and Rules of Musick Explained The Grounds and Rules of Musick Explained (Boston, [1760]). The other songs were William Tans'ur, "An Anthem for Christmas Day," in [Daniel Bayley,] (Boston, [1760]). The other songs were William Tans'ur, "An Anthem for Christmas Day," in [Daniel Bayley,] The Royal Melody Complete The Royal Melody Complete (Boston, 1761); "An Hymn for Christmas Day," in Daniel Bayley, (Boston, 1761); "An Hymn for Christmas Day," in Daniel Bayley, A New and Complete Introduction to the Grounds and Rules of Musick A New and Complete Introduction to the Grounds and Rules of Musick (Newburyport, Ma.s.s., 1764); William Knapp, "An Anthem for Christmas Day;" anon., "A Christmas Hymn;" and Joseph Stephenson, "O Zion that Bringest," all in Joseph Flagg, ed., (Newburyport, Ma.s.s., 1764); William Knapp, "An Anthem for Christmas Day;" anon., "A Christmas Hymn;" and Joseph Stephenson, "O Zion that Bringest," all in Joseph Flagg, ed., Sixteen Anthems Sixteen Anthems (Boston, 1766); Stephenson, "An Anthem, Out of the Second Chapter of Luke;" Stephenson, "Hark, Hark;" "Boston, A New Hymn for Christmas Day;" "Great Milton" ("Joy to the World"); and Stephenson, "An Anthem Out of the Fortieth Chapter of Isaiah" ("O Zion that bringst glad tidings"), all in Daniel Bayley and A. Williams (Boston, 1766); Stephenson, "An Anthem, Out of the Second Chapter of Luke;" Stephenson, "Hark, Hark;" "Boston, A New Hymn for Christmas Day;" "Great Milton" ("Joy to the World"); and Stephenson, "An Anthem Out of the Fortieth Chapter of Isaiah" ("O Zion that bringst glad tidings"), all in Daniel Bayley and A. Williams The American Harmony The American Harmony (2 parts, Boston, 1769). (2 parts, Boston, 1769).

72. In chronological order of publication, these were: "An Hymn for Christmas or Charlston [sic]" and "Boston, for Christmas," both published in In chronological order of publication, these were: "An Hymn for Christmas or Charlston [sic]" and "Boston, for Christmas," both published in The New-England Psalm-Singer The New-England Psalm-Singer (1770); "Boston" (same music as "Boston, for Christmas," but with a different text), "Judea," and "Bethlehem" (all in (1770); "Boston" (same music as "Boston, for Christmas," but with a different text), "Judea," and "Bethlehem" (all in The Singing-Master's a.s.sistant) The Singing-Master's a.s.sistant) [1778]; "Emmanuel for Christmas" (in [1778]; "Emmanuel for Christmas" (in The Psalm-Singer's Amus.e.m.e.nt The Psalm-Singer's Amus.e.m.e.nt [1781]); "Shiloh, for Christmas" (in [1781]); "Shiloh, for Christmas" (in The Suffolk Harmony The Suffolk Harmony [1786]); and "An Anthem for Christmas" (in [1786]); and "An Anthem for Christmas" (in The Continental Harmony The Continental Harmony [1794]). In addition, Billings may have been asked in 1782 to compose an elaborate Christmas hymn (also on a Watts text, but for soloist, chorus and organ) for Trinity Episcopal Church in Boston. (See David P. McKay and Richard Crawford, [1794]). In addition, Billings may have been asked in 1782 to compose an elaborate Christmas hymn (also on a Watts text, but for soloist, chorus and organ) for Trinity Episcopal Church in Boston. (See David P. McKay and Richard Crawford, William Billings of Boston: Eighteenth-Century Composer William Billings of Boston: Eighteenth-Century Composer [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975], 132133. A discussion of Billings's Christmas songs can be found ibid., 141146.) [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975], 132133. A discussion of Billings's Christmas songs can be found ibid., 141146.) 73. Isaiah Thomas, Isaiah Thomas, Worcester Collection of Sacred Harmony Worcester Collection of Sacred Harmony (Worcester, 1786), 188194; Daniel Read, "A Christmas Anthem," (Worcester, 1786), 188194; Daniel Read, "A Christmas Anthem," The Columbian Harmonist No. III The Columbian Harmonist No. III (New Haven, 1785), 913. Technically, the "Hallelujah Chorus" is not a Christmas song, and (New Haven, 1785), 913. Technically, the "Hallelujah Chorus" is not a Christmas song, and Messiah Messiah itself was not written or initially performed as a Christmas oratorio. In 1795, Thomas would publish, as a separate imprint, a "Christmas Anthem," with music by Isaac Lane-to a text by Isaac Watts. (See Isaac Lane, "Christmas Anthem" [Worcester, 1785]). itself was not written or initially performed as a Christmas oratorio. In 1795, Thomas would publish, as a separate imprint, a "Christmas Anthem," with music by Isaac Lane-to a text by Isaac Watts. (See Isaac Lane, "Christmas Anthem" [Worcester, 1785]).

74. F. B. Dexter, ed., F. B. Dexter, ed., The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles (3 vols., New York, 1901), II, 103). (3 vols., New York, 1901), II, 103).

75. Ibid., II, 315. Ibid., II, 315.

76. The Yale community seems to have been a center of Christmas activity in the 1780s. In 1786 the Yale College Chapel was the site of a performance of a large-scale Christmas cantata, "An Ode for Christmas," composed specially for the occasion and subsequently published in a New Haven musical magazine. This "Ode" was sung by three separate four-part choirs (each representing one of the shepherds) and an additional three-part choir (in the role of the angel Gabriel). The published version of this elaborate piece indicated that it had received "universal applause." The Yale community seems to have been a center of Christmas activity in the 1780s. In 1786 the Yale College Chapel was the site of a performance of a large-scale Christmas cantata, "An Ode for Christmas," composed specially for the occasion and subsequently published in a New Haven musical magazine. This "Ode" was sung by three separate four-part choirs (each representing one of the shepherds) and an additional three-part choir (in the role of the angel Gabriel). The published version of this elaborate piece indicated that it had received "universal applause." American Musical Magazine American Musical Magazine (New Haven, 1787), vol. 1, 2730; microfilm in American Periodicals Series I: Reel 6. (New Haven, 1787), vol. 1, 2730; microfilm in American Periodicals Series I: Reel 6.

77. Francis G. Walett, ed., Francis G. Walett, ed., The Diary of Ebenezer Parkman 17031782: First Part, 17191755 The Diary of Ebenezer Parkman 17031782: First Part, 17191755 (Worcester, Ma.s.s.: American Antiquarian Society, 1974), 160 (1747), 195 (1755). (Worcester, Ma.s.s.: American Antiquarian Society, 1974), 160 (1747), 195 (1755).

78. Ma.n.u.script diary of David Hall, in pre-Revolutionary Ma.s.sachusetts Diaries, Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society: Microfilm 5:1. (Entries are missing for many of the years in the 1750s.) Hall composed extended Christmas meditations in 1763, 1768, and 1769. He is not to be confused with the historian David D. Hall. Ma.n.u.script diary of David Hall, in pre-Revolutionary Ma.s.sachusetts Diaries, Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society: Microfilm 5:1. (Entries are missing for many of the years in the 1750s.) Hall composed extended Christmas meditations in 1763, 1768, and 1769. He is not to be confused with the historian David D. Hall.

79. John Birge ma.n.u.script Daybook (Poc.u.mtuck Valley Memorial a.s.sociation Library), p. 62. This doc.u.ment was unearthed by Carrie Giard, an undergraduate student at the University of Ma.s.sachusetts, Amherst. (Birge's final comment-"I cannot see why it was much better than Burglary"-implies that other people did John Birge ma.n.u.script Daybook (Poc.u.mtuck Valley Memorial a.s.sociation Library), p. 62. This doc.u.ment was unearthed by Carrie Giard, an undergraduate student at the University of Ma.s.sachusetts, Amherst. (Birge's final comment-"I cannot see why it was much better than Burglary"-implies that other people did not not think of such Christmas intrusions as burglary, and supports the idea that this kind of seasonal misrule operated just at the boundaries of acceptable behavior.) think of such Christmas intrusions as burglary, and supports the idea that this kind of seasonal misrule operated just at the boundaries of acceptable behavior.) 80. [Joseph Green,] "Entertainment for a Winter's Evening: Being a Full and True Account of a very strange and wonderful Sight seen in Boston on the twenty-seventh of December at Noon-Day" (Boston, 1750), 56 ("diverting Christmas tale;" "'tis love ... house of G.o.d"), 11 ("eating"). For another modern account of this event, see Steven Bullock's [Joseph Green,] "Entertainment for a Winter's Evening: Being a Full and True Account of a very strange and wonderful Sight seen in Boston on the twenty-seventh of December at Noon-Day" (Boston, 1750), 56 ("diverting Christmas tale;" "'tis love ... house of G.o.d"), 11 ("eating"). For another modern account of this event, see Steven Bullock's Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Order, 17301840 Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Order, 17301840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996). The Masons celebrated the name day of (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996). The Masons celebrated the name day of two two saints named John; the other was St. John the Baptist, whose name day happened to fall on June 24. In effect, the Masons were celebrating both the winter and the summer solstice. Capt. Francis Goelet recorded three visits to the Freemasons' Boston lodge, at Stone's Tavern, all in October 1750. See saints named John; the other was St. John the Baptist, whose name day happened to fall on June 24. In effect, the Masons were celebrating both the winter and the summer solstice. Capt. Francis Goelet recorded three visits to the Freemasons' Boston lodge, at Stone's Tavern, all in October 1750. See New England Historical and Genealogical Register New England Historical and Genealogical Register, 24 (1870), 53.

81. E. P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," in E. P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," in Journal of Social History Journal of Social History, vol. 7 (1974), 382405.

82. Green, "Entertainment," 12. Green, "Entertainment," 12.

83. "The News-Boy's Christmas and New Year's verses" (Broadside, Boston, 1770). The "The News-Boy's Christmas and New Year's verses" (Broadside, Boston, 1770). The Ma.s.sachusetts Gazette and Boston Post-Boy Ma.s.sachusetts Gazette and Boston Post-Boy for Dec. 23, 1771, printed a devotional poem, "An Hymn on Christmas Day." for Dec. 23, 1771, printed a devotional poem, "An Hymn on Christmas Day."

84. W. W. Newell, "Christmas Maskings in Boston," in W. W. Newell, "Christmas Maskings in Boston," in Journal of American FolkLore Journal of American FolkLore 9 (1896), 178. 9 (1896), 178.

85. H. E. Scudder, ed., H. E. Scudder, ed., Recollections of Samuel Breck, with Pa.s.sages from His Note-Books (17711862) Recollections of Samuel Breck, with Pa.s.sages from His Note-Books (17711862) (Philadelphia, 1877), 37. Breck was raised as an upper-cla.s.s Bostonian. From 1780 to 1792 (when he moved to Philadelphia), his family lived in a "remarkably fine" house at the corner of Winter and Common (now Tremont) Streets, with an acre of land. The house was sold for $8,000 in 1792. (Ibid., 3738.) This was presumably where Breck saw the Anticks. (Philadelphia, 1877), 37. Breck was raised as an upper-cla.s.s Bostonian. From 1780 to 1792 (when he moved to Philadelphia), his family lived in a "remarkably fine" house at the corner of Winter and Common (now Tremont) Streets, with an acre of land. The house was sold for $8,000 in 1792. (Ibid., 3738.) This was presumably where Breck saw the Anticks.

86. The [Boston] Mercury The [Boston] Mercury, Dec. 20, 1793. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word antic antic originally meant "a grotesque gesture, posture, or trick." It was commonly used to refer to "a grotesque pageant or theatrical representation ...; hence, a grotesque or motley company." originally meant "a grotesque gesture, posture, or trick." It was commonly used to refer to "a grotesque pageant or theatrical representation ...; hence, a grotesque or motley company."

87. The [Boston] Mercury The [Boston] Mercury, Dec. 24, 1793, and the Columbian Centinel Columbian Centinel [Boston], Dec. 25, 1793; [Boston], Dec. 25, 1793; The Diary of William Bentley, pastor of the East Church, Salem The Diary of William Bentley, pastor of the East Church, Salem (4 vols., Salem: The Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute, 19514), II, 78. The Anticks were not the only perpetrators of Christmas violence in Boston in 1793. On Christmas Eve (4 vols., Salem: The Ess.e.x Inst.i.tute, 19514), II, 78. The Anticks were not the only perpetrators of Christmas violence in Boston in 1793. On Christmas Eve another another mob disrupted religious services in the local Roman Catholic church. ( mob disrupted religious services in the local Roman Catholic church. (Columbian Centinel [Boston], Dec. 25, 1793.) [Boston], Dec. 25, 1793.) 88. Ma.s.sachusetts Centinel Ma.s.sachusetts Centinel, Dec. 23 and 26, 1789; see also Russell E. Miller, The Larger Hope: The First Century of the Universalist Church in America, 17701870 The Larger Hope: The First Century of the Universalist Church in America, 17701870 (Boston: Unitarian Universalist a.s.sociation, 1979), 321. (Boston: Unitarian Universalist a.s.sociation, 1979), 321.

89. Earl Morse Wilbur, Earl Morse Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism A History of Unitarianism (2 vols., Cambridge: Harvard University Press:, 194552), vol. 1, 400414. The one marginal exception to the Unitarian front was the Old South Church, which "remained nominally orthodox by the narrowest margin, [although] its minister, Dr. Eckley, denied the supreme divinity of Christ" (ibid., 400). (2 vols., Cambridge: Harvard University Press:, 194552), vol. 1, 400414. The one marginal exception to the Unitarian front was the Old South Church, which "remained nominally orthodox by the narrowest margin, [although] its minister, Dr. Eckley, denied the supreme divinity of Christ" (ibid., 400).

90. Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, Dec. 24, 1817. See also Independent Chronicle Independent Chronicle, Dec. 24, 1817, and Boston Gazette Boston Gazette, Dec. 25, 1817 and Dec. 29, 1817 (a confirmation that all of this actually happened).

91. Quoted in Caroline Sloat, "Before There Was Christmas," Quoted in Caroline Sloat, "Before There Was Christmas," Old Sturbridge Visitor Old Sturbridge Visitor 24 (1984), 10. 24 (1984), 10.

92. See See Boston Intelligencer Boston Intelligencer, Dec. 12, 19, and 26, 1818; Boston Gazette Boston Gazette, Dec. 21 and 24, 1818; Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, Dec. 22, 1818; The Idiot The Idiot, Dec. 24, 1818; New England Galaxy and Masonic Magazine New England Galaxy and Masonic Magazine, Dec. 18 and 25, 1818.

93. Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, Dec. 22, 1818; New England Galaxy New England Galaxy, Dec. 25, 1818 (this letter is signed "South End").

94. Notice in Notice in Ma.s.sachusetts Spy Ma.s.sachusetts Spy [Worcester], Dec. 22, 1818. Bancroft had the sermon published as "The Doctrine of Immortality: A Christmas Sermon" (Worcester, 1819). Aaron Bancroft was an open Unitarian who had been preaching Christmas sermons each year since 1816. See "The Diary of Isaiah Thomas 18051828," in [Worcester], Dec. 22, 1818. Bancroft had the sermon published as "The Doctrine of Immortality: A Christmas Sermon" (Worcester, 1819). Aaron Bancroft was an open Unitarian who had been preaching Christmas sermons each year since 1816. See "The Diary of Isaiah Thomas 18051828," in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society IX (1909), 337 (1816), 368 (1817), 412413 (1818). The 1659 Ma.s.sachusetts law was printed in the IX (1909), 337 (1816), 368 (1817), 412413 (1818). The 1659 Ma.s.sachusetts law was printed in the Boston Intelligencer and Evening Gazette Boston Intelligencer and Evening Gazette, Jan. 2, 1819. For data on the open churches, see Boston Gazette Boston Gazette, Dec. 24, 1818. The previous year a collection of Christmas hymn texts was printed in Boston (it may have been part of the same movement): G. Ca.r.s.eer, Hymns for the Nativity of Our Saviour Hymns for the Nativity of Our Saviour (Boston, 1817). (Boston, 1817).

95. Boston Recorder Boston Recorder, Dec. 19, 1818. The previous year the approval of this paper had been implicit: ibid., Dec. 30, 1817.

96. Boston Gazette Boston Gazette, Dec. 23, 1819; Farmer's Cabinet Farmer's Cabinet (Amherst, N.H.), Dec. 25, 1819 (the previous Christmas the same paper had reported favorably on the Boston business closings, and two local religious societies actually held devotional meetings in Amherst). See also (Amherst, N.H.), Dec. 25, 1819 (the previous Christmas the same paper had reported favorably on the Boston business closings, and two local religious societies actually held devotional meetings in Amherst). See also New-England Galaxy New-England Galaxy, Dec. 24, 1819; Boston Intelligencer Boston Intelligencer, Dec. 25, 1819; Independent Chronicle Independent Chronicle, Dec. 22 and 25, 1819.

97. New England Galaxy New England Galaxy, Jan. 2, 1824.

98. "On Public Festivals," "On Public Festivals," Missionary Herald at Home and Abroad [The Panoplist and Missionary Herald] Missionary Herald at Home and Abroad [The Panoplist and Missionary Herald] (Boston), vol. 16 (Feb., 1820), 5759; (Boston), vol. 16 (Feb., 1820), 5759; Boston Statesman Boston Statesman, Dec. 27, 1828.

Chapter 2.

1. The episode is recorded by Pintard in a letter written in stages between Dec. 8, 1820, and January 4, 1821 (the pa.s.sage I have used was written on January 1): The episode is recorded by Pintard in a letter written in stages between Dec. 8, 1820, and January 4, 1821 (the pa.s.sage I have used was written on January 1): Letters from John Pintard to his Daughter 18161833 Letters from John Pintard to his Daughter 18161833 (4 vols., New York: New-York Historical Society, 1940): vol. 1, 359. I have modernized Pintard's spelling and punctuation. The revelers who disturbed Pintard's sleep would have const.i.tuted a callithumpian band consisting of young working-cla.s.s men; by the 1820s, these bands had become a menace in the eyes of more prosperous New Yorkers. See Paul A. Gilje, (4 vols., New York: New-York Historical Society, 1940): vol. 1, 359. I have modernized Pintard's spelling and punctuation. The revelers who disturbed Pintard's sleep would have const.i.tuted a callithumpian band consisting of young working-cla.s.s men; by the 1820s, these bands had become a menace in the eyes of more prosperous New Yorkers. See Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 17631834 The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 17631834 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 254255. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 254255.

2. The Hudson [N.Y.] Weekly Gazette The Hudson [N.Y.] Weekly Gazette, Jan. 4, 1787. This item was brought to my attention by Robert Arner.

3. E. P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," in E. P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," in Journal of Social History Journal of Social History, vol. 7 (1974), 382405 (see esp. 390394). The resurgence of paganism in England during this period has often been noted; Thompson's splendid article places it in a richly subtle context.

4. E. P. Thompson deals with the English version of the charivari in two articles: "'Rough Music': Le Charivari anglais," E. P. Thompson deals with the English version of the charivari in two articles: "'Rough Music': Le Charivari anglais," Annales Annales (1972); and "Rough Music," in E. P. Thompson, (1972); and "Rough Music," in E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: The New Press, 1993), 467533. (New York: The New Press, 1993), 467533.

5. Such employers collectively resisted the ongoing tendency of their workers to treat the month of December as a period of leisure and festivity. An instance of English worker resistance to celebrating Christmas on a single day is reported in J. M. Golby and A. W. Purdue, Such employers collectively resisted the ongoing tendency of their workers to treat the month of December as a period of leisure and festivity. An instance of English worker resistance to celebrating Christmas on a single day is reported in J. M. Golby and A. W. Purdue, The Making of the Modern Christmas The Making of the Modern Christmas (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 76. This book offers a very good overview of the history of Christmas in England. (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 76. This book offers a very good overview of the history of Christmas in England.

6. For England, see J. M. Golby, "A History of Christmas" (1981), quoted in Daniel Miller, "A Theory of Christmas," in Daniel Miller, ed., For England, see J. M. Golby, "A History of Christmas" (1981), quoted in Daniel Miller, "A Theory of Christmas," in Daniel Miller, ed., Unwrapping Christmas Unwrapping Christmas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 3. Golby has traced references to Christmas in the (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 3. Golby has traced references to Christmas in the Times Times of London from 1790 to 1836. of London from 1790 to 1836.

7. For the transformation of New York, see Gilje, For the transformation of New York, see Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy; The Road to Mobocracy; Christine Stansell, Christine Stansell, City of Women: s.e.x and Cla.s.s in New York, 17891860 City of Women: s.e.x and Cla.s.s in New York, 17891860 (New York: Knopf, 1986); Elizabeth Blackmar, (New York: Knopf, 1986); Elizabeth Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent, 17851850 Manhattan for Rent, 17851850 (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1989); Sean Wilentz, (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1989); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Cla.s.s, 17881850 Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Cla.s.s, 17881850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); and Raymond A. Mohl, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); and Raymond A. Mohl, Poverty in New York, 17831825 Poverty in New York, 17831825 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971). The recorded population of New York City increased from 33, 131 in 1790 to 202, 589 in 1825. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971). The recorded population of New York City increased from 33, 131 in 1790 to 202, 589 in 1825.

8. Gilje, Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy The Road to Mobocracy, 239 (also 135213). The best brief account of the transformation of early-nineteenth-century New York is Stansell, City of Women City of Women, 410.

9. Blackmar, Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent Manhattan for Rent, 170172. According to Blackmar, the poor "used the streets as a common landscape" that provided an opportunity for unregulated, spontaneous encounters with others, encounters that made it possible for them "to gain or supplement subsistence by peddling fruits, oysters, hardware, used clothing, or s.e.xual favors" (or by scavenging, gambling, shoplifting or fencing stolen goods). "No less than foraging on rural common land, the 'liberty' of the streets supported the city's poorest residents." See also 4142.

10. See, for example, letter of Dec. 17, 1828, in Pintard, See, for example, letter of Dec. 17, 1828, in Pintard, Letters Letters, III, 5152.

11. Oct. 28, 1818, in Pintard, Oct. 28, 1818, in Pintard, Letters Letters, I, 151. For the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, see Stansell, City of Women City of Women, 3036 (also 18, 71, 164), and Mohl, Poverty in New York Poverty in New York, ch. 5. The S.P.P.'s purposes included the discouragement and "prevention of mendicity and street begging;" the group argued that existing relief policies only served to encourage laziness and dependence on charity (Mohl, Poverty in New York Poverty in New York, 245). Pintard himself wrote that the S.P.P. was intended to stem the growth of "the present system of relieving the poor," by providing "not ... alms but labor, so that there shall be no pretext for idleness," and "to expel the drones from society." (Pintard, Letters Letters, 1, 151.) 12. Dec. 16, 1828, ibid., III, 5152. Dec. 16, 1828, ibid., III, 5152.

13. This item was actually printed as a broadside: "The following piece, which was desired to be inserted in the New-York Journal of this Day, Dec. 24, 1772, but omitted for want of room, will be inserted next Week." This item was actually printed as a broadside: "The following piece, which was desired to be inserted in the New-York Journal of this Day, Dec. 24, 1772, but omitted for want of room, will be inserted next Week."

14. Gilje, Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy The Road to Mobocracy, 130133, 253260. See also Susan G. Davis, "'Making Night Hideous': Christmas Revelry and Public Order in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia," American Quarterly American Quarterly, 34, No. 2 (Summer 1982), 185199; esp. 186192. This is the best study of the battle for Christmas in a nineteenth-century city. See also Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 3839, 7678, 103109, 158159. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 3839, 7678, 103109, 158159.

15. Ibid., 255. The mayor was Philip Hone. In 1837 Hone recorded in his diary a New Year's Day scene at the house of a subsequent mayor: "[T]he rabble ... use his house as a Five Points tavern.... [T]he scene ... defies description ... the tables were taken by storm, the bottles [of wine and punch] emptied in a moment. Confusion, noise, and quarreling ensued, until the Mayor, with the a.s.sistance of his police, cleared the house and locked the doors.... Every scamp ... considers himself authorized to use him and his house and his furniture at his pleasure; to wear his hat in his presence, to smoke and spit upon his carpet, to devour his beef and turkey, and wipe his greasy fingers upon the curtains, to get drunk with his liquor...." Hone suggests that similar scenes had happened before. Allan Nevins, ed., Ibid., 255. The mayor was Philip Hone. In 1837 Hone recorded in his diary a New Year's Day scene at the house of a subsequent mayor: "[T]he rabble ... use his house as a Five Points tavern.... [T]he scene ... defies description ... the tables were taken by storm, the bottles [of wine and punch] emptied in a moment. Confusion, noise, and quarreling ensued, until the Mayor, with the a.s.sistance of his police, cleared the house and locked the doors.... Every scamp ... considers himself authorized to use him and his house and his furniture at his pleasure; to wear his hat in his presence, to smoke and spit upon his carpet, to devour his beef and turkey, and wipe his greasy fingers upon the curtains, to get drunk with his liquor...." Hone suggests that similar scenes had happened before. Allan Nevins, ed., The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 (2 vols., New York, 1927), I, 235236). (2 vols., New York, 1927), I, 235236).

16. Quoted in Gilje, Quoted in Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy The Road to Mobocracy, 254.

17. New York Advertiser New York Advertiser, Jan. 4, 1828; Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy The Road to Mobocracy, 257259; Luc Sante, Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), 341342. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), 341342.

18. Davis, Davis, Parades and Power Parades and Power, 108; Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy The Road to Mobocracy, 260.

19. May 27, 1823, in Pintard, May 27, 1823, in Pintard, Letters Letters, II, 137138.

20. Charles Jones, "Knickerbocker Santa Claus," Charles Jones, "Knickerbocker Santa Claus," New-York Historical Society Quarterly New-York Historical Society Quarterly 38 (1954), 356383 (see 367371). 38 (1954), 356383 (see 367371).

21. Ibid., 370371. Ibid., 370371.

22. For example, see Dec. 18, 1827, in Pintard, For example, see Dec. 18, 1827, in Pintard, Letters Letters, II, 382.

23. Dec. 16, 1827, in Pintard, Dec. 16, 1827, in Pintard, Letters Letters, II, 382.

24. Dec. 16, 1827, ibid., II, 382; Jan. 2, 1828, ibid., III, I. Dec. 16, 1827, ibid., II, 382; Jan. 2, 1828, ibid., III, I.

25. For the St. Nicholas Day banquets, see Pintard, For the St. Nicholas Day banquets, see Pintard, Letters Letters, 1, 38 (1816); 1, 156 (1818). For New Year's Day, see ibid., I, 44 (1817); 1, 161 (1819); I, 358359 (1821); II, 117 (1822); II, 320, 324 (1827); III 1 (1828); III, 117 (1830). In 1832 Pintard anonymously published in the New York Mirror New York Mirror (Dec. 29, 1832, 207) an essay lamenting the decline of New Year's open houses among the New York elite and attributing it to the nouveaux riches. (This anonymous essay was brought to my attention by Elizabeth Blackmar.) Pintard's authorship is indicated ibid., IV, 114115, 117. (Dec. 29, 1832, 207) an essay lamenting the decline of New Year's open houses among the New York elite and attributing it to the nouveaux riches. (This anonymous essay was brought to my attention by Elizabeth Blackmar.) Pintard's authorship is indicated ibid., IV, 114115, 117.

26. Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Anthropologists have dubbed this phenomenon, rather meanly and a little unfairly, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Anthropologists have dubbed this phenomenon, rather meanly and a little unfairly, fakelore fakelore (as distinct from more authentic (as distinct from more authentic folklore) folklore).

27. J. M. Golby and A. W. Purdue, J. M. Golby and A. W. Purdue, The Making of the Modern Christmas The Making of the Modern Christmas (Athens, Ga: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 43. (Athens, Ga: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 43.

28. "Keeping Christmas," "Keeping Christmas," Mirror of Literature, Amus.e.m.e.nt, and Instruction Mirror of Literature, Amus.e.m.e.nt, and Instruction 10 (1825), 514518. (This magazine, published in Boston, reprinted British material.) Another essay on the same topic simply argued that the old rural Christmas was a complete bore! "A Country Christmas," ibid. 5 (1823), 168172. 10 (1825), 514518. (This magazine, published in Boston, reprinted British material.) Another essay on the same topic simply argued that the old rural Christmas was a complete bore! "A Country Christmas," ibid. 5 (1823), 168172.

29. For Christmas as a day of prayer, see Pintard, For Christmas as a day of prayer, see Pintard, Letters Letters, 1, 356 (1820); II, 114 (1821); II, 210 (1825). For "St. Claas": ibid., II, 384 (1827); III, 53540 (1828); III, 115 (1829); III, 206 (1830); III, 305 (1831); IV, 116 (1832).

30. While Pintard's basic Santa Claus ritual remained essentially the same after he first devised it, Pintard did continue to tinker with the details. In 182729, the family's presents were placed in stockings hung by the chimney, but in 1830 they were placed on a table. The presents themselves changed, too: candies and fruit at first; toys were added in 1828 (a drum), and in 1832 the toys were replaced with books (because toys "cost much and are soon broken"). While Pintard's basic Santa Claus ritual remained essentially the same after he first devised it, Pintard did continue to tinker with the details. In 182729, the family's presents were placed in stockings hung by the chimney, but in 1830 they were placed on a table. The presents themselves changed, too: candies and fruit at first; toys were added in 1828 (a drum), and in 1832 the toys were replaced with books (because toys "cost much and are soon broken").

31. There were allusions to St. Nicholas' Day in 1773 and 1774, but Jones explains these in reference to the American Revolution (i.e., as a patriotic alternative to St. George's Day), and not as precursors of the St. Nicholas cult that would develop a generation later. Jones, "Knickerbocker Santa Claus," 362364. There were allusions to St. Nicholas' Day in 1773 and 1774, but Jones explains these in reference to the American Revolution (i.e., as a patriotic alternative to St. George's Day), and not as precursors of the St. Nicholas cult that would develop a generation later. Jones, "Knickerbocker Santa Claus," 362364.

32. Ibid., 376. In another study Jones even suggests that the Dutch themselves took up the St. Nicholas cult from America-in the twentieth century, and largely for the sake of the tourist trade: Charles W. Jones, Ibid., 376. In another study Jones even suggests that the Dutch themselves took up the St. Nicholas cult from America-in the twentieth century, and largely for the sake of the tourist trade: Charles W. Jones, St. Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: Biography of a Legend St. Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: Biography of a Legend (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 307308. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 307308.

33. Washington Irving, Washington Irving, A History of New York A History of New York (2d ed., 2 vols., New York, 1812), vol. 1, 247 (Book 4, ch. 5). (2d ed., 2 vols., New York, 1812), vol. 1, 247 (Book 4, ch. 5).