Text Book of Biology Part 1

Text Book of Biology.

by H. G. Wells.

Part 1: Vertebrata.

-Introduction_

In the year 1884 I was invited to give tuition by correspondence, in Biology. Although disposed at the time to ridicule the idea of imparting instruction in natural science by letter, I gladly accepted the opportunity thus afforded me of ascertaining for myself what could and could not be accomplished in that direction. Anyone familiar with the scope of biological enquiry, and the methods of biological instruction, will not need to be reminded that it is only by the most rigorous employment of precise directions for observation, that any good results are to be looked for at the hand of the elementary student. True to this principle, I determined to issue to my correspondence pupils rigid instructions, and to demand in return faithful annotated drawings of facts observed in their usage. In the case of two among the few students who pa.s.sed through my hands, the result far exceeded my most sanguine antic.i.p.ations. The notes sent in by one of them-- a man working at a distance, alone and unaided-- far excelled those wrung from many a student placed under the most favourable surroundings; and their promise for the future has been fulfilled to the utmost, the individual in question being now a recognised investigator. It thus became clear that, not-with-standing the complex conditions of work in the biological field, tuition by correspondence would suffice to awaken the latent abilities of a naturally qualified enquirer. The average members of a University Correspondence Cla.s.s will be found neither better nor worse than those of any other, and they may therefore pa.s.s unnoticed; if however, the correspondence system of tuition may furnish the means of arousing a latent apt.i.tude, when the possibilities of other methods of approach are excluded-- and in so doing, of elevating the individual to that position for which he was by nature qualified, ensuring him the introduction to the one sphere of labour for which he was born-- it will have created its own defence, and have merited the confidence of all right-thinking people. The plucking of one such brand from the burning is ample compensation for the energy expended on any number of average dullards, who but require to be left alone to find their natural level.

Mr. Wells' little book is avowedly written for examination purposes, and in conformity with the requirements of the now familiar "type system" of teaching. Recent attempts have been made to depreciate this. While affording a discipline in detailed observation and manipulation second to that of no other branch of learning, it provides for that "deduction" and "verification" by which all science has been built up; and this appears to me ample justification for its retention, as the most rational system which can be to-day adopted.

Evidence that its alleged shortcomings are due rather to defective handling than to any inherent weakness of its own, would not be difficult to produce. Although rigid in its discipline, it admits of commentatorial treatment which, while heightening the interest of the student, is calculated to stimulate alike his ambition and his imagination. That the sister sciences of Botany and Zoology fall under one discipline, is expressed in the English usage of the term "Biology." Experience has shown that the best work in either department has been produced by those who have acquired on all-round knowledge of at least the elementary stages of both; and, that the advanced morphologist and physiologist are alike the better for a familiarity with the principles-- not to say with the progressive advancement-- of each other's domain, is to-day undeniable. These and other allied considerations, render it advisable that the elementary facts of morphology and physiology should be presented to the beginner side by side-- a principle too frequently neglected in books which, like this one, are specially written for the biological neophyte. Although the student is the wiser for the actual observation of the fact of nature, he becomes the better only when able to apply them, as for example, by the judicious construction of elementary generalizations, such as are introduced into the pages of this work. So long as these generalizations, regarded as first attempts to deduce "laws" in the form of "generalized statement of facts based observation," are properly introduced into an elementary text-book, intended for the isolated worker cut off from the lecture room, their intercalation is both healthy and desirable.

Mr. Wells has kept these precepts constantly in mind in the preparation of his work, and in the formulation of his plans for its future extension, thereby enhancing the value of the book itself, and at the same time, discouraging the system of pure cram, which is alien to the discipline of biological science.

G. B. Howes Royal College of Science, South Kensington; November 30, 1892.

-Preface_

No method of studying-- more especially when the objects of study are tangible things-- can rival that prosecuted under the direction and in the constant presence of a teacher who has also a living and vivid knowledge of the matter which he handles with the student. In the ideal world there is a plentiful supply of such teachers, and easy access to their teaching, but in this real world only a favoured few enjoy these advantages. Through causes that cannot be discussed here, a vast number of solitary workers are scattered through the country, to whom sustained help in this form is impossible, or possible only in days stolen from a needed vacation; and to such students especially does this book appeal, as well as to those more fortunate learners who are within reach of orderly instruction, but anxious to save their teachers' patience and their own time by some preliminary work.

One of the most manifest disadvantages of book-work, under the conditions of the solitary worker, is the rigidity of its expressions; if the exact meaning is doubtful, he can not ask a question. This has been kept in view throughout; the writer has, above all, sought to be explicit-- has, saving over-sights, used no uncommon or technical term without a definition or a clear indication of its meaning.

In this study of Biology, the perception and memory of form is a very important factor indeed. Every student should draw sketches of his dissections, and accustom himself to copying book diagrams, in order to train his eye to perception of details he might otherwise disregard. The drawing required is within the reach of all; but for those who are very inexperienced, tracing figures is a useful preliminary exercise.

By the time the student has read the "Circulation of the Rabbit"

(Sections 34 to 49), he will be ready to begin dissection. It is possible to hunt to death even such a sound educational maxim as the "thing before the name," and we are persuaded, by a considerable experience, that dissection before some such preparatory reading is altogether a mistake. At the end of the book is a syllabus (with suggestions) for practical work, originally drawn up by the writer for his own private use with the evening cla.s.ses of the University Tutorial College-- cla.s.ses of students working mainly in their spare time for the London examination, and at an enormous disadvantage, as regards the number of hours available, in comparison with the leisurely students of a University laboratory.

This syllabus may, perhaps by itself, serve a useful purpose in some cases, but in this essential part of the study the presence of some experienced overlooker to advise, warn, and correct, is at first almost indispensable.

A few words may, perhaps be said with respect to the design of this volume. It is manifestly modelled upon the syllabus of the Intermediate Examination in Science of London University. That syllabus, as at present const.i.tuted, appears to me to afford considerable scope for fairly efficient biological study. The four types dealt with in this book are extremely convenient for developing the methods of comparative anatomy and morphological embryology.

Without any extensive reference to related organisms, these four forms, and especially the three vertebrata, may be made to explain and ill.u.s.trate one another in a way that cannot fail to be educational in the truest sense. After dealing with the rabbit, therefore, as an organic mechanism, our sections upon the frog and dog-fish, and upon development, are simply statements of differences, and a commentary, as it were, upon the anatomy of the mammalian type.

In the concluding chapter, a few suggestions of the most elementary ideas of it is hoped to make this first part of our biological course complete in itself, and of some real and permanent value to the student. And the writer is convinced that not only is a constant insistence upon resemblances and differences, and their import, intellectually the most valuable, but also the most interesting, and therefore the easiest, way of studying animal anatomy. That chaotic and breathless cramming of terms misunderstood, tabulated statements, formulated "tips," and lists of names, in which so many students, in spite of advice, waste their youth is, I sincerely hope, as impossible with this book as it is useless for the purposes of a London candidate. On the other hand, our chief endeavour has been to render the matter of the book clear, connected, progressive, and easily a.s.similable. In the second part Plants, Unicellular Organisms, and Invertebrata will be dealt with, in a wider and less detailed view of the entire biological province.

{Lines from First Edition only.} -In this volume, we study four organisms, and chiefly in their relation to each other; in the next, we shall study a number of organisms largely in relation to their environment. In this part our key note is the evidence of inheritance; in our second part it will be of adaptation to circ.u.mstances.-

This book will speedily, under the scrutiny of the critical reader, reveal abundant weakness. For these the author claims the full credit. For whatever merit it may posses, he must however, acknowledge his profound indebtedness to his former teacher, Professor Howes. Not only has the writer enjoyed in the past the privilege of Professor Howes' instruction and example, but he has, during the preparation of this work, received the readiest help, advise, and encouragement from him-- a.s.sistance as generous as it was unmerited, and as unaffected as it was valuable.

{Lines from Second Edition only.} [The publication of a second and revised edition of this Part affords the author an opportunity of expressing his sense of the general kindliness of his reviewers, and the help they have him in improving this maiden effort. To no one is there vouchsafed such a facility in the discovery of errors in a book as to its author, so soon as it has pa.s.sed beyond his power of correction. Hence the general tone of encouragement (and in some cases the decided approval) of the members of this termination to a period of considerable remorse and apprehension.]

I have been able through their counsel, and the experience I have had while using this book in teaching, to correct several printer's errors and to alter various ambiguous or misleading expressions, as well as to bring the book up to date again in one or two particulars.

My thanks are particularly due to my friend Miss Robbins, who has very kindly redrawn the occasionally rather blottesque figures of the first edition. Not only have these plates gained immensely in grace and accuracy, but the lettering is now distinct-- an improvement that any student who has had to hunt my reference letters in the first edition will at once appreciate.

H. G. Wells November, 1892. {First Edition.} December, 1893. {Second Edition.}

-The Rabbit._

1. _External Form and General Considerations._

Section 1. It is unnecessary to enter upon a description of the appearance of this familiar type, but it is not perhaps superfluous, as we proceed to consider its anatomy, to call attention to one or two points in its external, or externally apparent structure. Most of our readers know that it belongs to that one of two primary animal divisions which is called the vertebrata, and that the distinctive feature which place it in this division is the possession of a spinal column or backbone, really a series of small ring-like bones, the vertebrae (Figure 1 v.b.) strung together, as it were, on the main nerve axis, the spinal cord (Figure 1 s.c.). This spinal column can be felt along the neck and back to the tail. This tail is small, tilted up, and conspicuously white beneath, and it serves as a "recognition mark" to guide the young when, during feeding, an alarm is given and a bolt is made for the burrows. In those more primitive (older and simpler-fashioned) vertebrata, the fishes, the tail is much large and far more important, as compared with the rest of the body, than it is in most of the air-inhabiting vertebrates. In the former it is invariably a great muscular ma.s.s to propel the body forward; in the latter it may disappear, as in the frog, be simply a feather-bearing stump, as in the pigeon, a fly flicker, as in the cow or horse, a fur cape in squirrel, or be otherwise reduced and modified to meet special requirements.

Section 2. At the fore end, or as English zoologists prefer to say, anterior end, of the vertebral column of the rabbit, is of course the skull, containing the anterior portion of the nerve axis, the brain (Figure 1 br.). Between the head and what is called "the body," in the more restricted sense of the word, is the neck. The neck gives freedom of movement to the head, enables the animal to look this way and that, to turn its ears about to determine the direction of a sound, and to perform endless motions in connexion with biting and so forth easily. We may note that in types which swim through the water, the neck dose not appear-- in the fish and frog, for instance-- and the head simply widens out as one pa.s.ses back to the body.

The high resistance offered by water necessitates this tendency to a cigar or ship outline, just as it has determined the cigar shape of the ordinary fish torpedo.

Section 3. In the body of the rabbit, as examined from the outside, we can make out by feeling two distinct regions, just as we might in the body of a man; anteriorily a bony cage, having the ribs at the sides, a rod-like bone in the front, the sternum (Figure 1 -st.-, [stm.]), and the backbone behind, and called the chest or thorax; and posteriorily a part called the abdomen, which has no bony protection over its belly, or ventral surface. These parts together with the neck const.i.tute the trunk. As a consequence of these things, in the backbone of the rabbit there are four regions: the neck, or cervical part, consisting of seven vertebrae, the thoracic part of twelve joined to ribs, the abdominal (also called the lumbar) region of seven without ribs, and the tail or caudal of about fifteen. Between the lumbar and caudal come four vertebrae, the sacral, which tend to run together into a bony ma.s.s as the animal grows old, and which form a firm attachment for the base of the hind limb.

Section 4. The thorax and abdomen are separated by a part.i.tion, the diaphragm (Figure 1 dia.). This structure is distinctive of that cla.s.s of the vertebrata called mammals, and which includes man, most of the larger and commoner land animals, and whales and manatee.

We shall find later that it is essentially connected with the perfection of the air breathing to which this group has attained. Another characteristic shared by all mammals, and by no other creature, is the presence of hair. In birds we have an equally characteristic cover in the feathers, the frog is naked, and the fishes we find either naked skins or scales.

Section 5. The short strong fore limbs are adapted to the burrowing habit, and have five digits; the hind limbs are very much longer and muscular, enable the animal to progress rapidly by short leaps, and they have four toes. If the student thinks it worth while to attempt to remember the number of digits-- it is the fault of examiners if any value dose attach to such intrinsically valueless facts-- he should a.s.sociate the number 54 (5 in front, 4 behind) with the rabbit, and observe that with the frog the reverse is the case.

Section 6. We may note here the meaning of certain terms we shall be constantly employing. The head end of the rabbit is anterior, the tail end posterior, the backbone side of the body-- the upper side in life-- is dorsal, the breast and belly side, the lower side of the animal, is ventral. If we imagine the rabbit sawn asunder, as it were, by a plane pa.s.sing through the head and tail, that would be the median plane, and parts on either side of it are lateral, and left or right according as they lie to the animal's left or right. In a limb, or in the internal organs, the part nearest the central organ, or axis, is proximal, the more remote or terminal parts are distal. For instance, the mouth is anteriorly placed, the tongue on its ventral wall; the tongue is median, the eyes are lateral, and the fingers are distal to the elbow. The student must accustom himself to these words, and avoid, in his descriptions, the use of such terms as "above,"

"below," "outside," which vary with the position in which we conceive the animal placed.

Section 7. So much for the general form; we may note a few facts of general knowledge, in connection with the rabbit's life-activity. In a day of the rabbit's life a considerable amount of work is done-- the animal runs. .h.i.ther and thither, for instance; in other words, a certain ma.s.s of matter is moved through s.p.a.ce, and for that we know force must be exerted. Whence comes the force?

Section 8. We find the rabbit occupies a considerable amount of its time in taking in vegetable matter, consisting chiefly of more or less complex combustible and unstable organic compounds. It is a pure vegetarian, and a remarkably moderate drinker. Some but only a small proportion, of the vegetable matter it eats, leaves its body comparatively unchanged, in little pellets, the faeces, in the process of defaecation. For the rest we have to account.

Section 9. We find, also, that the rabbit breathes air into its lungs, which is returned to the atmosphere with a lessened amount of oxygen, and the addition of a perceptible amount of carbon dioxide.

The rabbit also throws off, or excretes, a fluid, the urine, which consists of water with a certain partially oxydised substance containing nitrogen, and called urea, and other less important salts.

The organs within the body, by which the urine is separated, are called the kidneys.

Section 10. Repeating these facts in other words, the rabbit takes into its body complex and unstable organic compounds containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, a certain amount of oxygen, a small quant.i.ty of sulphur, and still smaller amounts of other elements. It also breathes in oxygen.

Section 11. It returns a certain rejected part of its food comparatively unchanged. Besides this, it returns carbon dioxide and water, which are completely oxydised, and very simple and stable bodies, and urea-- a less completely oxydised compound, but a very simple one compared with the food const.i.tuents.

Section 12. Now the chemist tells us that when a stable body is formed, or when an unstable compound decomposes into simpler stable ones, force is evolved. The oxydation of carbon, for instance, in the fireplace, is the formation of the stable compound called carbon dioxide, and light and heat are evolved. The explosion of dynamite, again is the decomposition of an unstable compound.

Hence, we begin to perceive that force-- the vital force-- which keeps the rabbit moving, is supplied by the decomposition and partial oxydation of compounds continued in its food, to carbon dioxide, water, urea, and smaller quant.i.ties of other substances.

Section 13. This is the roughest statement of the case possible, but it will give the general idea underlying our next chapters. We shall consider how the food enters the body and is taken up into the system, how it is conveyed to the muscles in the limbs, to the nerve centres, and to wherever work is done, to be there decomposed and partially oxydised, and finally how the products of its activity-- the katastases, of which the three princ.i.p.al are carbon dioxide, water, and urea-- are removed from the body.

Section 14. There are one or two comparatively modern terms that we may note here. This decomposition of unstable chemical compounds, releasing energy, is called kataboly. A reverse process, which has a less conspicuous part in our first view of the animal's life action, by which unstable compounds are built up and energy stored, is called anaboly. The katastases are the products of kataboly.