Sound Military Decision Part 22

In other cases, however, the action indicated in the Decision, though plainly indicating the commander's intent--that is, his calculated line of endeavor--may not have designated the numerous physical objectives as to which his effort is to be exerted. For example, the Decision "to interrupt enemy trade on the southern maritime routes" is quite clear, but what are the numerous exertions of force required, and with relation to what physical objectives? Immediately there is a perplexity. Guided by the a.n.a.lysis made in his previous estimate of the situation, the commander now determines what the physical objectives are, action as to which will contribute to the accomplishment of the effort. The sum total of the actions taken against these physical objectives is properly equivalent to the accomplishment of the action indicated in his Decision. He may not be able at this time to determine all of the correct physical objectives, but he can determine certain correct ones (for the method, see Section III of Chapter IV).

The correct physical objectives having been determined, so far as can be done at this time, the commander studies each thoroughly, developing the possibilities of certain effective actions (operations) with reference thereto. For instance, in the case of a commander who has been ordered to "interrupt enemy trade on the southern maritime routes", he might develop one operation "to bomb enemy facilities at Port X", and another "to capture or destroy enemy shipping along trade routes" (with an indication of the routes involved).

The operations thus developed are now listed in a definite sequence, in order to provide a proper basis for the further procedure. The commander may find it desirable to state them in their order of importance. Sometimes, however, it may be found advantageous to list the operations in chronological sequence, i.e., in the order of their execution. This point is further discussed hereafter (pages 166 and 192). The commander is at liberty, of course, to use either method according to its helpfulness in enabling him to visualize the elements of his problem.

The commander now considers the second feature: advantageous relative positions. He may already occupy an advantageous geographical location or locations (see pages 64 (bottom) and 65 (top)), or he may desire to improve his positions in certain respects. An advantageous position might be between the enemy and his base, in order to deny it to him.

Another advantageous position might be to windward of the enemy, for the purpose of making a destroyer attack under the protection of a smoke screen.

The commander now reconsiders, from the viewpoint of "advantageous relative positions", the operations deduced with respect to "correct physical objectives". As a result of this reconsideration, he may find that certain of these operations may be retained without change, whereas others may require modification.

Suppose, for example, that two of the operations listed are those noted above, viz:

"To bomb enemy facilities at Port X", and

"To capture or destroy enemy shipping along trade routes between the ---- parallels of north lat.i.tude and the ---- meridians of west longitude."

From the viewpoint of relative position, it may appear that the first operation is not affected seriously, if at all. Therefore, this operation may be left unchanged. However, the second operation may be definitely affected by relative position, because the best method of interrupting enemy trade may be to employ raiding forces in focal areas. Therefore this operation might be altered to the form, "to capture or destroy enemy trade by raiding focal areas" (with a designation of the areas).

The commander's study is now likely to suggest operations which were not apparent when the a.n.a.lysis was confined to the correct physical objectives, alone. New physical objectives may appear to require attention. If so, all such new operations are added to the list compiled.

The commander may now study his list of operations, compiled to this point, from the standpoint of the third feature, proper apportionment of fighting strength. However, if the commander considers such apportionment now, his subsequent study of the fourth element--"adequate freedom of action"--may develop a need for further operations which will in turn call for a re-a.n.a.lysis as to his apportionment of fighting strength.

Therefore, for purposes of this discussion, it is a.s.sumed that the commander now defers consideration of such apportionment, and that he proceeds at this point to study measures for ensuring adequate freedom of action.

This study requires consideration of such matters as training, morale, surprise, secrecy, cooperation, intelligence, logistics, and provisions (communications, location of the commander, and the like) for effective exercise of command. (See page 76). The commander exercises his judgment as to the degree of detail in which such matters should be treated, according to the nature of his problems.

If any such subject--for example, communications--involves the development of a subsidiary plan (page 168), the measures noted in connection with the formulation of the basic plan may be stated along broad lines, such as: "To provide for effective communications." Any specific matters of considerable importance may also be included,--for example, as to secrecy with respect to the use of communications.

Other details may then be deferred until the commander takes up the necessary subsidiary plan. Otherwise, all pertinent operations in connection with these measures are naturally noted at this point.

Certain of these measures for freedom of action are now to be discussed in some detail because of their important bearing on basic plans.

In certain operations contemplated by the commander, there may be a requirement for additional training, sometimes of a special nature.

This may be true, for instance, if an operation involves the landing of an expeditionary force. Conditions permitting, the commander will naturally desire to make provision for training exercises. If time or other conditions do not permit necessary training, he may find it desirable to modify his plans accordingly. The salient features of a subsidiary training problem are discussed hereafter (page 176), and may well be considered at this point in developing the basic plan.

The commander may already have noted, in considering operations suggested by his previous study of the situation, a need for certain action as to security, secrecy, and intelligence. Any additional operations of this nature, not previously noted, may well be incorporated at this point.

Security of his own plan, and secrecy therefor, are important considerations with reference to intelligence activities. The requirements as to intelligence and counter-intelligence features are primary considerations as to any plan. Such considerations involve the collection of information and its conversion into intelligence. The hampering of enemy intelligence activities is a related consideration.

The collection of useful information, and its denial to the enemy, call for a definite plan. When information has been collected, it is subjected to the processes (page 122) of a.n.a.lysis, evaluation, interpretation, and dissemination. Collection, to be consistently effective, calls for specific directives to, or requests on, the appropriate collecting agencies. a.n.a.lysis determines the source of the information and the circ.u.mstances under which it was obtained.

Evaluation determines its degree of reliability. Interpretation consists of drawing conclusions; when information thus takes the form of facts (so far as they can be ascertained) and of sound conclusions drawn therefrom, it becomes military (naval) intelligence. It is then disseminated to those concerned and is used in the solution of the commander's own problems.

The basis for collection of such data is the determination of the essential elements of information desired by the commander. The notation of these essential elements, for later incorporation in his directive(s), naturally const.i.tutes a primary feature of his basic plan. The essential elements of information are frequently formulated as questions--e.g., Will the enemy do this? Is the enemy doing that?

What are the princ.i.p.al topographic features of Y Island, with respect to so and so?

These questions cover the essential matters of perplexity as to enemy courses of action and as to the characteristics of the theater. Each enemy course of action, for example, may provide the basis for a question; or, if the scope of the problem has narrowed sufficiently, such question may deal with one of the enemy's possible operations, related to a course of action which he may be pursuing or is known to be pursuing.

On the basis of the essential elements of information, the commander provides for proper reconnaissance activities by the several collecting agencies under his command, or for appropriate requests to be made by him on other collecting agencies. A sound plan will always make adequate provision for such measures.

These subjects are treated in more detail in the later discussion (page 177) of intelligence problems.

In connection with freedom of action, the commander will also make adequate provision for logistics support. In its unrestricted sense, the term "logistics" relates to the supply and movement of a military force, and to such related matters as the disposition and replacement of ineffective personnel. Logistics measures, as comprehended in the development of the basic plan, exclude movement primarily of a strategical or tactical nature, but include movement related primarily to supply and similar matters. This requirement gives rise to the necessity for logistics measures which may further call for operations such as to provide fuel oil and supplies at rendezvous X and Y, and tender facilities at port D. An incidental requirement will relate to movements of train ships. Hence, the commander formulates these, also, and includes them in his list of operations for later a.s.signment as logistics tasks. (Page 166). Fuel oil may likewise be required at Port D, but if the commander knows that ample fuel oil is in store there, no operation to cover this feature is required of him.

The solution of logistics problems is further discussed hereafter (page 179).

The commander has now, it may be presumed, evolved all of the operations that his a.n.a.lysis tells him are appropriate with respect to correct physical objectives, advantageous relative positions, and freedom of action. Therefore, he now studies all of these operations from the viewpoint of the remaining element--proper apportionment of fighting strength. This consideration involves, initially, a determination of what forces will be necessary to carry out the operations listed. The commander thereby determines the requirements, as to forces, for each such operation.

For example, the operation "to locate an enemy force" may require the use of several types of naval vessels and aircraft. The commander determines what method of search is best for the purposes of this specific operation; thereafter, he determines what forces are necessary to conduct the search. The procedure has previously been indicated (in the Principle of the Proper Means to be Made Available--page 34).

In this study the commander will often find it necessary to divide some of the more extensive operations into component parts, suitable for later a.s.signment as tasks for subordinates. Fundamentally, there is no difference between an operation and a task, except that the latter includes also the idea of imposing on another person, or a.s.signing to him, a definite amount of work or duty (page 84). At this stage, then, the commander deals with components suitable for performance by available weapons, in the usual units, or combinations of units, in which they are effective. Of course, when an operation meets this requirement without subdivision into components, it need not be subdivided.

These component parts are not yet actually tasks, because the commander does not plan to a.s.sign them at this time to any one for execution. However, the components are visualized as clearly, and are formulated as definitely, as is possible at this point. The requirement is that they be acts that available forces can perform.

The method of breaking down an operation into component parts is one of a.n.a.lysis and deduction. Having visualized the manner whereby the operation can contribute to the accomplishment of the effort, the commander has now to determine the means to be employed to this end.

Experience and knowledge tell him what numbers and types of ships, aircraft, and other weapons, if properly employed, will attain the effect desired.

Each component part will indicate both the action and the physical objectives of the action. For each component, the commander estimates what forces are required. He knows the extent of the armed forces available, and he can, if his total force is adequate, adjust matters to allow each component a force capable of carrying it out.

For example, a component operation might call for a search by destroyers, but the commander might find that his destroyers were in such poor relative position as to prevent them from reaching the point of origin in time. Therefore he would be unable to conduct the search by using destroyers alone. He might now consider a search by aircraft.

A study of this proposal might indicate that it could be carried out in part by aircraft, but that available aircraft were inadequate to carry it out in its entirety. In such event, consideration would be in order of the possibility of conducting this search by use of other forces also, e.g., submarines and cruisers.

In case the commander believes an indicated operation to be infeasible, he first restudies that operation to see whether he can modify it, without adversely affecting the accomplishment of the effort. He may even find that he can eliminate it by including its essential features in some other operation.

If the commander finds that his forces are inadequate for the accomplishment of an effort in one stage, but that they are adequate for its accomplishment in successive stages, he may draw a conclusion as to which of the operations he can carry out first. On this basis, he may proceed with the formulation of tasks to include these operations, leaving the remainder to a future time (see page 56).

It may be that all operations set down cannot be accomplished by the forces available, but that they will be possible of accomplishment if other forces are provided. This knowledge, of the sum total of forces required for the action indicated in the Decision, is an essential. It is only by such a searching inquiry that the commander ensures that the operations resolved from the Decision will result in a full solution of his problem. Usually the forces available will be found adequate, because the superior who provided them gave consideration, on his part, to the requirements. However, if the forces available are not deemed adequate, the commander either modifies the operations, or restricts them, or subdivides them into parts for performance in succession by stages. In any such case, conditions permitting, he makes constructive representations, together with a report of the facts, to his superior (see page 103).

Testing for Suitability, Feasibility, and Acceptability.

Each of the operations finally deemed necessary or desirable is now tested as to its suitability, its feasibility, and its acceptability as to consequences. The considerations involved have been explained previously (Section III of Chapter IV) and are therefore not repeated here.

The testing process will eliminate those operations found not suitable, feasible, or acceptable.

In addition, the tests may lead to the elimination of operations which, while both suitable and feasible, do not contribute enough toward the accomplishment of the effort to warrant their retention.

For example, among the operations listed might be one to capture X island and one to capture Y island, both suitable and feasible. The commander, having a.n.a.lyzed these proposals, might conclude that the capture of Y island would not const.i.tute a sufficient contribution to warrant its adoption as an operation at this time. Therefore, he might omit this operation, or he might defer it to a later stage.

A feasible operation may similarly be rejected or deferred out of preference for another which can more readily be accomplished.

The tests may also reveal important facts as to the relative consequences with respect to costs. For example, two operations might both be acceptable as to this factor, but one might be less acceptable than the other. Accordingly, the less acceptable operation might be omitted, or might be deferred for the time being.

Upon the completion of the tests, all operations retained are listed for further development.