Sound Military Decision Part 11

In the chapters which follow, the fundamental procedure distinctive of each of these steps will be treated separately and in the sequence shown. The sequence of the steps is fixed because of the consequential nature of the relationship among the procedures distinctive of the several steps. The complete solution of a problem involves, necessarily, all four steps. Each step deals with a distinctive type of problem, or problems, pertaining to an aspect of the comprehensive problem whose solution requires all four steps. No step after the first can properly be undertaken unless the included problems involved in the preceding steps have been solved.

It does not follow that the completion of one step necessarily requires that the next step be undertaken immediately. It will be seen, for instance, that the first two steps are concerned with planning, the latter two more especially with execution. It is not always necessary that a plan be executed; it may be drawn up as a precautionary measure.

It is possible, therefore, that the first step only may be taken; i.e., that the procedure for the attainment of a particular a.s.signed objective may be determined for the sole purpose of making provision against a contingency, at that particular time merely an obscure probability. Or, as may frequently be the case during peace, the procedure may terminate, for the time being, with the completion of the second step. In such cases, certain of the necessary military operations are worked out in the desired detail as a provision against future possibilities, are listed, and filed for reference as needed.

Parts II and III, which follow, deal primarily with the solution of those problems of the naval commander which require familiarity with the entire process, i.e., all of the four steps given above.

For simplicity of presentation, the procedure is described throughout from the mental standpoint of the same commander. The arrangement of subject matter conforms to this basis. The several types of problems, cla.s.sified according to the source of the incentive (page 79), are discussed in connection with the appropriate step. When a problem typical of a previous step arises during the process, the sequence of steps is interrupted thereby, but is resumed by a mental return, on the part of the commander, to the proper earlier step.

The First Step

The mental procedure distinctive of the first step (more fully discussed in Chapter VI) deals with the usual case where a commander becomes acquainted with the nature of his a.s.signed objective through receipt of a directive from his immediate superior, ordinarily in the form of an a.s.signed task or a.s.signed tasks. In the discussion of the first step, this most likely type of problem is chosen for description, i.e., the one where the motivating task (see page 80) comes directly from the immediate superior.

For purposes of reference, this problem may conveniently be termed a basic problem. In such a case the original situation which gives character to the problem may be similarly referred to as the basic situation. The full solution of a basic problem always involves a basic estimate of the situation, a basic Decision, a basic plan of operations, and one or more basic directives. It may, as will be shown, also require certain additional directives.

The military Estimate of the Situation, based on the natural mental processes (pages 19-20 and 43), is introduced in the first step. The reason for making such an Estimate is to provide a basis for a plan to accomplish the a.s.signed task. The Estimate const.i.tutes a systematic procedure for selection of a correct objective (or objectives), suitable to the appropriate effect desired, feasible of attainment, and acceptable as to the consequences involved in its achievement. The selection of such an objective or objectives involves, incidentally (see page 44), the determination, in the proper detail, of the action required.

This estimate procedure is founded on the Fundamental Military Principle (page 41). The procedure is the same as previously indicated for the correct selection of objectives (Section II of Chapter IV).

On the basis of a summary of the situation, a recognition of the incentive, and an appreciation of the a.s.signed objective(s) (page 79), the estimate of a basic problem enables the commander to obtain, first, an understanding of (page 43) the appropriate effect desired.

As a result of this procedure, he can then correctly formulate his mission (discussed hereinafter).

For the further understanding of all details pertaining to the situation (page 43), the estimate next determines relative fighting strength through a survey of the means available and opposed, as influenced by the characteristics of the theater.

With the basis for solution of the problem thus established, the actual solution (page 44), conforming to the system indicated in the Fundamental Military Principle, starts with consideration of pertinent methods of procedure, as tentative solutions of the problem. These take the form of military operations, each denominated a course of action (discussed in detail hereinafter). Each such course embodies, specifically or inferentially, an objective to be achieved for the attainment of the appropriate effect desired. Each course also indicates, in proper detail, the action to be taken. Every pertinent course of action is tested to determine whether it meets the requirements of suitability as to the appropriate effect desired, of feasibility on the basis of relative fighting strength, and of acceptability with respect to the consequences as to costs.

Enemy courses of action are subjected to the same treatment.

Each course of action which pa.s.ses the tests is compared with each retained enemy course, after which those courses of action not rejected on this basis are compared with each other. The best is then selected and embodied in the Decision.

The Decision, accordingly, expresses a general plan of action (or provides a basis therefor), including the commander's general objective (page 49) for the attainment of the a.s.signed objective. The Decision also indicates, in proper detail, the action to be taken.

The estimate procedure is applicable not only to the problem of the first step, viewed as a whole, but also to the numerous included problems. These present themselves during the procedure of solution, and call for "estimates within the estimate".

For example, the proper nature of the objective embodied in the a.s.signed task (discussed hereinafter), if not clear in the directive received, may be determined by the use of the natural mental processes. This is done through the application of the Fundamental Military Principle, as previously described (page 52).

Similarly, the solution of the included problems as to the salient features of the operations involved (correct physical objectives, etc.) can be arrived at through the same processes. The procedure is that indicated previously (in Section III of Chapter IV).

The estimate procedure may, however, be somewhat varied, as to details, in accordance with the nature of the problem. Such adaptation is applicable, for example, as to the special features which distinguish certain types of strategical and tactical problems.

Every military situation has both strategical and tactical aspects (see discussion of strategy and tactics, pages 9 and 10). The character of the effort to be exerted at a particular time, and the nature of the objectives to be attained, may be governed chiefly by strategical, or chiefly by tactical, considerations. This fact may affect details in the estimate of the situation, e.g., as to the weight to be given various factors.

The essential difference between strategy and tactics has been shown to lie in the end in view. It follows, then, that estimates of broad strategical situations and of localized tactical situations tend to differ from each other. The former lead to decisions as to such matters, among others, as whether a battle shall be fought. The latter lead to decisions, among others, as to the comprehensive tactical methods to be followed in furtherance of strategical aims. Certain distinctions of method as to such estimates are noted hereinafter with respect to the a.n.a.lysis of fighting strength and with reference to courses of action.

Tasks. The a.s.signment of tasks to subordinates is an essential function of the chain of command, applicable to all of the echelons of command, from the highest to the lowest (page 12). On the lowest echelons, such as that of a gun's crew or a fireroom watch, operations thus prescribed involve numerous small specialized tasks, each requiring the performance of a simplified routine by a few trained men. Although earlier training in the performance of such tasks is calculated to remove the necessity of solving the problems of the lowest echelons in the four studied steps stated above, it is only when the same methods of logical thought have previously been applied to the solution of these problems that this state of affairs can be brought about.

Properly conceived, each a.s.signed task indicates, either specifically or inferentially, an objective (or objectives). The relationships existing among the echelons of command, with reference to objectives, have previously been noted. (See page 48.) These relationships, because a correctly conceived task specifies or infers an objective, are equally applicable as to such tasks.

The manner of expressing tasks calls for special comment (see also page 53, as to expressing objectives).

The commander may find in the expression of his task a statement, only, of the action required. For example, the order "Proceed toward the enemy battle line" involves movement, indicating merely a change in relative position. No provision appears as to a future condition or state of affairs.

Again, the task may be expressed as an order to "Attack the enemy battle line." In this case, the enemy battle line is the physical objective, but no specific future condition to result from the attack is indicated. Here the action and the physical objective are given, but the objective is left to be inferred.

If the commander can ascertain, from the directives he receives, his task expressed in terms of accomplishment, he may be able to visualize the action, the physical objective, and the condition to be created. The order "Destroy the enemy battleship" (indicating, as the objective, "the destruction of the enemy battleship"), results, when successfully completed, in a new condition which is the objective of the action against the physical objective.

Accordingly, a task expressed in such terms of accomplishment conveys precise information as to the objective; yet such an expression of the task does not prevent freedom of action, with opportunity for exercise of initiative. The commander who is a.s.signed such a task can clearly visualize the results demanded of him, and may feel at liberty to employ any one or all of the methods at his disposal.

However, it is not always possible or even desirable to express tasks in terms of accomplishment.

For example, where the future situation cannot be adequately visualized, either because of the doubtful values of certain factors or because of possible changes in circ.u.mstances, it may be impracticable to a.s.sign a definite task in terms of accomplishment.

Under such conditions, and sometimes for other proper reasons, it may be desirable to afford a trusted and competent subordinate a corresponding measure of freedom of action. In such a case, the indication of the commander's general objective for his entire force, together with a directive for action along a certain general line, without prescription of a definite objective, may be especially appropriate to the situation. Such is the frequent usage in the issue, for example, of directives of the type known as letters of instruction (Chapter VIII).

Again, where immediate response is desired, and where the objective may be understood by implication, the task may be better expressed in terms of action, rather than of accomplishment. This is frequently the case where the task is a.s.signed by word of mouth, by memorandum, or by signal. In the last-named instance, the signal, when it const.i.tutes a command fully understood by previous usage or experience, may convey a practically instantaneous comprehension of the objective. In many such instances, however, an inferred objective will require more a.n.a.lysis.

The expression of the task in terms of action is frequently desirable, more especially during an engagement, when tactical considerations are uppermost. Under such circ.u.mstances, two or more objectives may be suitable to the appropriate effect desired, but their degree of suitability, and the influence of the factors pertaining to feasibility and acceptability, may vary rapidly with the course of events. In such conditions, an order such as "Attack" without indicating a specific physical objective, may be best calculated to attain desired results, for the reason, more especially, that it affords the subordinate a proper freedom of action.

In many cases, the instructions received by a commander will set forth more than one task, often of varying importance. The proper bearing of such a double or multiple task upon his future action is set forth, together with other relevant matters, in the discussion of the mission, which follows.

On occasion, a higher commander, in a.s.signing a task, may elect to specify, also, the course of action to be pursued by a subordinate for the attainment of the a.s.signed objective: for example--

"Deny enemy bases in area ABCD by capturing X Island".

Here the task is to deny the enemy the use of available bases in the area described; in addition, the higher commander has specified that this be accomplished by the adoption of a predetermined course of action (page 88), expressed in the words "by capturing X Island."

Higher authority has in this case made the subordinate's estimate of the situation for him, and has thus arrived at the decision which the subordinate would ordinarily reach for himself.

Such procedure may be deemed advisable under certain circ.u.mstances: for example, when time is pressing; when a close control of the situation is an important factor; when the qualifications of the subordinate are unknown, as yet doubtful, or known to be inadequate for the operation in hand; or, for various other reasons which may suggest themselves according to the nature of the problem.

Occasionally, higher authority, for similar reasons, may also prescribe the action to be taken, in considerable detail. Examples occur during operations of unusual complexity, or when the personnel factors call for special care in coordination of the action.

Sometimes, higher authority, instead of announcing both the task and the predetermined course of action, may indicate only the latter; in the example given above, the higher commander would then direct, "Capture X Island". The directive might also include, in some detail, the action to be taken to this end.

Procedure such as noted in the foregoing examples involves certain special considerations from the viewpoint of the subordinate. These considerations are discussed hereafter (page 96).

The Mission. In our naval service an a.s.signed task, coupled with its purpose, is known as a mission. As explained previously (page 48), the purpose indicates the larger aim which is to be served by the execution of the task. The task indicates the a.s.signed objective, i.e., what is to be accomplished; the purpose, the further objective to be served thereby.

The word mission is a derivative of the Latin verb, "to send". Its use implies the act of sending someone, or of being sent, as an agent for some special duty, a duty imposed by one in authority. Although an individual, free to do so, may select his own mission, and thereby send himself on a special duty, this is not usually the case where an effective military chain of command exists. Normally the sending authority is the immediate superior; the agent, the immediate subordinate.

The mission, once a.s.signed, does not change until it has been accomplished or until it has been modified or revoked by higher authority, usually the immediate superior by whom it was a.s.signed.

As previously explained in this connection, the designation of a purpose, linked with a task, is an essential element of a mission as treated herein. It is essential to unity of effort that the purpose of the mission of a commander be common with that of other commanders of the same echelon who are to partic.i.p.ate in the effort enjoined by their superior's directives. Directives expressed in the Order Form (page 112 and Chapter VIII) facilitate clear recognition of this purpose, which appears in the general plan of action prescribed in the second paragraph of that form. The commander may consider the relationship thus:

My a.s.signed task is to be accomplished for the purpose of carrying out my designated part of my immediate superior's general plan.

It is customary to simplify the foregoing to the statement that the mission is:

(Task) (statement of the a.s.signed task),