Religion in Japan Part 1

Religion in j.a.pan.

by George A. Cobbold, B.A.

INTRODUCTORY.

It may well be questioned whether, in the course of a like period of time, any country has ever undergone greater transitions, or made more rapid strides along the path of civilization than has j.a.pan during the last quarter of a century. A group of numerous islands, situated on the high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic across the Pacific, between the Eastern and Western hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding Great Britain and Ireland,-j.a.pan, until thirty years ago, was a _terra incognita_ to the rest of the world; exceeding even China in its conservatism and exclusiveness. And now, within a s.p.a.ce of some five-and-twenty years, such changes have come about as to have given birth to the expression,-"the transformation of j.a.pan." The more conspicuous of these changes are summed up by a recent writer in the following words:-"New and enlightened criminal codes have been enacted; the methods of judicial procedure have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and of national education have been organized; an army and a navy modelled after Western patterns have been formed; the finances of the Empire have been placed on a sound basis; railways, roads, and harbours have been constructed; an efficient mercantile marine has sprung into existence; the jail system has been radically improved; an extensive scheme of local government has been put into operation; a compet.i.tive civil service has been organized; the whole fiscal system has been revised; an influential and widely-read newspaper press has grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government by parliament has been subst.i.tuted for monarchical absolutism."(1) At the present day, an Englishman travelling in j.a.pan is constantly meeting numbers of his countrymen, intent on either business or pleasure; while at all the princ.i.p.al cities and places of resort, handsome new hotels, fitted in Western style, are to be found. The Mikado may be seen driving through his Capital in a carriage that would not be out of place in the Parks of London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies European dress is _de rigueur_.

English is taught in all the better-cla.s.s schools, and at the Universities the works of such authors as Bacon, Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, are in constant request with the students. In short, on every side evidence is afforded, that be it for better or for worse, the old order is fast changing and giving place to new.

The circ.u.mstances which have brought about these wonderful changes can only be very briefly indicated here. It was towards the middle of the sixteenth century that j.a.pan first came into contact with the Western world; the first traders to arrive being the Portuguese, who were followed some sixty years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few English ships.

To all of these alike a hospitable reception appears to have been accorded; nor is there any doubt that j.a.panese exclusiveness was a thing of subsequent growth, and that it was based only on a sincere conviction that the nation's well-being and happiness would be best consulted by refusing to have dealings with the outer world. And indeed, that the j.a.panese should have arrived at this decision is by no means to be wondered at; their first experience of foreign intercourse having been singularly unfortunate. The unhappy breach, which eventually led to j.a.pan entirely closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would seem, due partly to the att.i.tude of harsh intolerance and general interference adopted by certain of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time had arrived in the country: and partly to the insinuations made by the Dutch that the Portuguese were aiming at territorial aggrandizement.

Anyhow, in 1624, j.a.pan was entirely closed to foreign trade, save for some concessions,-accompanied by the severest restrictions,-permitted to the Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, and no natives to leave, the empire; the missionaries were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited under pain of death. The j.a.panese, as has been said, "suspected everybody and shut out the world." Previous to this crisis the English had retired; but when, in 1673, our country sought to resume friendly relations, the connexion existing between the English and Portuguese courts proved an insuperable obstacle.(2) Subsequent overtures made in 1849, were courteously but firmly rejected; though the period of j.a.pan's isolation was, as later events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the Government of the United States despatched a fleet across the Pacific, under the command of Commodore Perry, to insist upon the surrender of a policy which, it was urged, no one nation of the world had a right to adopt towards the rest.

Whether the arguments with which this position was advanced would of themselves have prevailed, is impossible to say; but since it was evident that should words fail, sterner measures would be resorted to, j.a.pan had no choice but to submit. Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with the United States, and subsequently with England and other European powers; by virtue of which a few ports were grudgingly opened, and j.a.panese subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions with the outside world. For the first few years, it is certain that a strong feeling of suspicion and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in 1868 events occurred which brought about a complete change in the whole situation. For some six hundred years a dual system of government had existed in j.a.pan. On the one hand, was the Mikado, supposed to trace a lineage of unbroken descent from the G.o.ds, and accorded a veneration semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of Kyoto, with such powers of administration as he still retained confined to matters of religion and education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, or Tyc.o.o.n, the acknowledged head of a feudalism, which, while nominally recognizing the Mikado's authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and really governed the country. But in 1868, the altered circ.u.mstances in which j.a.pan found herself brought about a revolution. The ancient n.o.bility were filled with indignation and disgust at the Tyc.o.o.n so far violating j.a.panese tradition as to enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, as a consequence of this rupture, the Shogunate, whose power had for some time been waning, completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to imperial power, and at once entered upon a policy which has been consistently adhered to, and received with favour by the people generally, who had grown impatient of the restraint which environed them. That policy may be termed the Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have the explanation of the j.a.pan of to-day.

It is not surprising that the interest excited in England, with regard to a country which has experienced such remarkable changes, should be of the greatest-especially when it is remembered in how large a degree English influence has contributed to produce them. We may be certain, also, that the still further developments the future has in store, will be followed in our own country with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, in these days of so great fashion and facility for travelling, increasing numbers of English people should avail themselves of the opportunity of exploring a country so entirely unique, and so rich in its attractions of nature and of art. These circ.u.mstances have combined to call into existence a large number of books on j.a.pan, from which any, who are unable to visit it in person, may obtain as good an idea as is possible by reading of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed it is by no means easy for any writer now to fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in which he does not find himself forestalled. That, however, on which, so far as I understand, least has been written, is precisely that towards which my own main attention was directed from the time of my leaving England, and throughout the period of my visit to the country,-namely, the _religious_ aspect. That the following pages must be very imperfect in the statement they supply, I am well aware; and that, despite my efforts to obtain trustworthy information, they will not prove free from inaccuracy or mistake is extremely probable. But I was induced to enter upon their preparation by a series of circ.u.mstances that appeared to favour such a task, and need not be specified here. For the material supplied to me, however, by one kind friend in particular, without whose a.s.sistance these articles would never have been attempted, I must express my special obligation. I would gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty to do so without obtaining his permission, which I have not, at the time of writing, the opportunity of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted on the subject, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to Messrs.

Chamberlain and Mason's excellent _Handbook for j.a.pan_ (Murray, 1891); and to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel's _Lectures on Buddhism_ (Trubner, 1871), given me by the author, at the close of a most interesting day spent under his guidance. The sketch Map of j.a.pan is inserted by the kind permission of the "Guild of St. Paul."

_November, 1893._

I. SHINTOISM.

When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, Buddhism was introduced into j.a.pan from China, by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term by which the ancient indigenous religion of the country might be distinguished from the new importation. The term thus adopted was _Shinto_, or _Kami-no-michi_; the former being a Chinese word, and the latter its j.a.panese equivalent. The meaning of either, in English, is the "Way of the Genii, or Spirits."(3) It will, accordingly, be seen that the _word_ "Shinto" has only been in use for some thirteen centuries, while the creed it designates claims to trace its origin from the remotest antiquity. Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us back not merely to the earliest annals of j.a.panese history, but to the fabulous legends of a mythological period. The history of j.a.pan is commonly reckoned to commence with the accession of the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which is given as February 11, 660 B.C.; and when, in 1889, the new Const.i.tution was promulgated, the anniversary of this event was the day selected-the idea evidently being to confirm the popular belief in the continuity of the country's history. This Jimmu Tenno-accounted by the j.a.panese their first human sovereign-is supposed to have been descended from Ama-terasu, the sun-G.o.ddess, who was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator of j.a.pan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification in which the Emperors of j.a.pan have ever been held. It is, then, the countless heroes and demi-G.o.ds of the mythological age referred to-the children of Izanagi reigning over j.a.pan, generation after generation, for many thousands of years-that are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; for while it is usual to speak of Shintoism as being a combination of ancestor-worship and nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of these elements was largely due to the contact of j.a.pan with the Taouism of China, and with metaphysical Buddhism. Thus the essential principle of Shintoism, it will be seen, is closely akin to that filial piety, which forms so conspicuous a feature in the religious, political, and social life of China, and which-deserving as it is, in many ways, of respect and admiration-presents, when carried to excess, so vast a hindrance to development and progress.

"Shintoism," in the words of Diayoro Goh, Chancellor of the j.a.panese Consulate General in London, "originated in the worship offered by a barbarous people to the mythological persons of its own invention." To speak accurately, it is not so much a religion as patriotism exalted to the rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country's heroes and benefactors of every age, legendary and historical, ancient and more recent; the spirits of these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to a great extent obscuring it, is a worship of the personified forces of nature; expressing itself often in the most abject superst.i.tion, and, until lately, also in that grosser symbolism with which the religion of Ancient Egypt abounded. This latter feature was widely prevalent in j.a.pan at the time that the country was first opened to foreigners; but after the Revolution in 1868, it was everywhere suppressed. It would appear that the personal cleanliness for which the j.a.panese, as a nation, are celebrated, had its origin in the idea of the purification of the body symbolizing the cleansing of the soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of way, Shintoism would seem to recognize a future state of bliss or misery, for which the present life is a period of probation. Practically, however, this is the only world with which Shintoism concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being accounted sufficient guides. It provides neither public worship, nor sermons; while its application is limited to subjects of the Mikado. "It is the least exacting of all religions." When this is once understood, there ceases to be anything surprising in the fact of two religions-of which Shintoism was one, and the other a creed so accommodating as Buddhism-running, side by side, for centuries in the same country, and being professed simultaneously by the same people, until the two were so closely interwoven that it became scarcely possible to distinguish their respective elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt was made to restore Shintoism to its primitive simplicity, and to mould it into a philosophical system which might minister to the higher aspirations of humanity. But the movement was a failure, and the Ryobu-Shinto, or "double religion,"-the combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and Buddhism-continued as before. It was only so lately as the year 1868 that any important change took place in the religious history of j.a.pan. In that year, Shintoism-for reasons wholly political-was adopted as the State, or "established" religion; Buddhism having always been the religion favoured by the Shogunate, and the ancient n.o.bility whom the Shogun represented.

Upon this, every temple was required to declare itself either Shinto or Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments peculiar to the discarded cult, whichever that might be. That no little excitement and dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be readily understood; especially when we bear in mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist and Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating in the same buildings and at the same altars.(4) A grant of some 60,000 a year was made by the Government for the maintenance of the Shinto temples and shrines, which are said to number in all about 98,000, and to be dedicated to no less than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, however, Shintoism has lost the greater part of the importance into which it was brought at the time of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it is supported out of the imperial revenues, and that the presence of its princ.i.p.al officials is required at certain of the state functions, its general position has in no way improved. The people still practise the observances of both religions alike; the only difference being that, to effect this, they have now to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both Shinto and Buddhist temples, for the purpose of solemn dedication. Another of the changes brought about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted by Buddhist priests, as was the case until 1868, the dead are now buried by either Shinto or Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of the many signs which indicate that Shintoism has well nigh run its course, not the least remarkable was the announcement made last year (1892) by the Government itself, to the effect that its rites were to be regarded as simply traditional and commemorative, and devoid of any real religious significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds and consciences of Christians in j.a.pan was, as might be supposed, very great.

Of the various sects the _Zhikko_,-founded 1541 A.D.,-is, perhaps, the most influential. This sect-as indeed do Shintoists generally-recognizes one eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; and here-as in other heathen religions-we find vague references to a Trinity engaged in the work of Creation.

[Ill.u.s.tration.]

Group of Shinto Priests With Torii.

Despite the dissociation of the two religions, many of the Shinto temples still retain traces of the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, which, however, is often found combined with great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove of trees; but, even in the case of large temples with a complete group of buildings, the architecture is extremely plain, the material employed being unornamented white wood with a thatch of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple grounds is always through gateways, called _Torii_; these are made sometimes of stone, but more properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal beam beneath. Near the entrance are commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, which are supposed to act as guardians. The princ.i.p.al shrine, or _Honsha_, is situated at the further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided by a railing into an ante-room and an inner sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an altar is erected, on which, however, no images or adornments are seen, but simply offerings of rice, fruit, wine, &c. Above the altar, in a conspicuous position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in a box beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. These three,-the mirror, the sword, and the stone,-const.i.tute the j.a.panese regalia, and they are all connected with the early legends. One of the traditions respecting the sacred mirror deserves quotation.

"When the time was come that Izanagi and his consort should return together to the celestial regions, he called his children together, bidding them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his last wishes.

He then committed to them a disc of polished silver, bidding them each morning place themselves on their knees before it, and there see reflected on their countenances the impress of any evil pa.s.sions deliberately indulged; and again each night carefully to examine themselves, that their last thoughts might be after the happiness of that higher world whither their parents had preceded them." The legend goes on to relate with what faithfulness "the children of Izanagi, and afterwards their descendants, carried out these injunctions; erecting an altar of wood to receive the sacred mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,-and how, as a reward for their obedience and devotion, they became in their turn, the spirits of good, the undying Kami."(5)

Another of the most common of the Shinto emblems is a slim wand of unpainted wood, called _Gohei_, to which strips of white paper-originally they were of cloth-are attached. These are thought to attract the deities, and are held in great veneration.

Leaving the princ.i.p.al shrine, and proceeding to make the tour of the grounds, the visitor comes, in turn, to the buildings where the business arrangements of the temple are transacted, and where the priests, in some cases, reside; to smaller shrines and oratories; to cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important temples is found a long covered platform, called the _Kagura-do_, where, on festivals and special occasions, a number of girls-those I saw at Nara were still quite children-perform the _Kagura_, or sacred dance. The dancing is in honour of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological period. In the grounds of Shinto and Buddhist temples alike are frequently found numerous stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive offerings, and lighted on any great occasions.

It has already been remarked that Shintoism has nothing corresponding to our public worship; but every morning and evening the priests-whose office seems held in no particular sanct.i.ty, and who are at liberty, at any time, to adopt a more secular calling-perform a service before the altar, vested in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and confined at the waist by a girdle. The service consists of the presentation of offerings and of the recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. The devotions of the people are remarkable for their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, on arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds a gong, to engage the attention of the deity he desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest possible value on to the matting within the sanctuary rails; makes one or two prostrations; and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his patron that his business with him is over, retires-it not being considered necessary to give to the pet.i.tion any verbal expression. The making of pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent place in the Shinto system, and though of late years the number of pilgrims has considerably decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the great temple of the sun-G.o.ddess at Ise-the "Mecca of j.a.pan,"-and other celebrated shrines. The chief object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of _O-harai_, or sacred charms, which can only be obtained on the spot. These, when brought home, are placed on the _Kamidana_, or G.o.d-shelf-a miniature temple of wood, found in every Shinto house, to which are attached the names of various patron deities, and the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase of the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes himself to the enjoyment of the various shows and other amus.e.m.e.nts provided for him in the neighbourhood of the temple.

To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such influence as the cult still possesses may be attributed to the superst.i.tion of the poor and illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the more educated, to break with so venerable a past. The latter, however, though they continue to conform to them, do not regard its observances seriously; while the importance attached to them by the State is, as we have seen, wholly political. In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course of a lecture delivered in London two or three years since: "Shintoism, being so restricted in its sphere, offers little obstacle to the introduction of another religion,"-provided, as he added, that the veneration of the Mikado, which has always formed the fundamental feature of j.a.panese government, is not interfered with. The truth of this statement has already been abundantly exemplified in the position which Buddhism for so many centuries held in the religious life of j.a.pan. In the same way, when, three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced into the country by the Portuguese, it was largely owing to the att.i.tude which some of the missionaries adopted towards these national rites, that the complications arose, which eventually led to the expulsion of foreigners, and the persecution of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it is not strange that an intense jealousy should be exhibited on behalf of observances and ceremonies, traceable back to such remote antiquity, and so intimately bound up with the whole political and social life of the nation. It is, indeed, highly probable that, in the great changes j.a.pan is undergoing, she will find other methods of cherishing the continuity of her, in many ways, ill.u.s.trious past. But meanwhile, Christians in j.a.pan may rejoice that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to manifest a respectful regard for a system that is by no means dest.i.tute of praiseworthy features.

II. BUDDHISM.

It is quite possible that to some of the readers of these pages the very name of Shintoism was unknown; whereas all will have heard and read at least something of Buddhism, one of the four most prevalent religions of the world, and claiming at the present day considerably more than four hundred millions of adherents.(6) At the same time, our inquiry into Buddhism cannot be comprised within such narrow limits as sufficed for our examination of the indigenous religion of j.a.pan; the subject being one of the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, then, it may be better if, at the outset, I allude to some of the literature, published within the last few years, which has been most instrumental in attracting attention, both in England and America, to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all reference be omitted to the writings of the late Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and their school; though I refer to them only in order to caution my readers against forming from them any estimate of Buddhism. The only literature, as far as I know, that has appeared in England from what claims to be an enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings are, I believe, calculated to convey a curiously erroneous idea of the great system with which we are now concerned, to any who would turn for information to them exclusively. This, indeed, becomes obvious when it is understood that the Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, is not the Buddhism of history and the sacred books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at the present day, but an "esoteric" Buddhism, a knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined to a comparative few, even in the country where it is said to be most prevalent.(7) In short, the "esoteric Buddhism" of Mr. Sinnett and his friends would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the movement which has recently acquired a brief notoriety in England under the name of Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper-i.e. the historical, popular Buddhism with which we have to do-can hardly be said to have anything in common.

With the book, however, which probably more than any other work of the day has been the means of drawing the attention of English-speaking people to Buddhism, we cannot deal in so summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin Arnold's poem, _The Light of Asia_, we have a work which is simply a rendering of the life of Buddha, in general accordance with the received traditions, and one, moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome at the hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned that the book is a production of great power, or that it appeals altogether to a very different cla.s.s of readers from that likely to be influenced by the _Occult World_, or _Isis Unveiled_.

It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and the book's consequent popularity, that only make the more necessary a reference which must to some extent take the form of a protest. To put it briefly, the case is this:-Men and women have risen from a perusal of the _Light of Asia_ with a sense of damage done to their Christian faith, and with a feeling-confused, perhaps, but not the less real-that in Gautama Buddha they have been confronted with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far the poem is responsible for this result we will not attempt to determine; and that such was no part of the author's intention we may readily believe. But that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and disturbed by the reading of this book is a certain fact; making it neither surprising nor regrettable that its publication should have been followed by works on the subject, written from an emphatically Christian point of view. To the fullest and ablest of these,-the Rev. S. H. Kellogg's _The Light of Asia and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the Legend, the Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, with the Story, the Doctrine and the Ethics of Christ_ (Macmillan, 1885),-I would refer those desirous of investigating fully the points at issue; contenting myself now with a few brief observations.

It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. Arnold's poem is written in the person, and from the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist.

This is indicated plainly on the t.i.tle-page, in the preface, and in the course of the poem itself; and when the book comes to be read by the light of this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of its more startling language. To take, for instance, such expressions as "Our Lord,"

"Saviour," "come to save the world," constantly a.s.signed to Buddha in the course of the poem. However accustomed Christians may be to a.s.sociate such terms with One only, and however pained they may feel at their being referred, under any circ.u.mstances and with any restrictions, to another, still it is obvious that their use becomes less open to objection, when placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the praise of his Master,-and that Master, one who, it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean work of deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting of satisfactory explanation are pa.s.sages in the book in which we find transferred to Buddha and Buddhism ideas and language distinctively Christian; the solemn saying of Simeon to the Holy Mother, "A sword shall pierce through thine own soul also," and the still more solemn, "It is finished" of the Cross, being made to supply particularly distressing instances of such treatment.(8)

Or once again: but what I would say now has already been urged by Dr.

Eitel, in words which I cannot do better than quote. "I believe," he says, "it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer and childish sayings with which the Buddhist Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism is little better than a string of nonsense. It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike our Bible, the Buddhist canon has undergone wholesale textual alterations.... As to the popular literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we might as well collect those little pamphlets on dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky days, on the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate among Roman Catholic peasants,-but would that give us a true picture of Roman Catholicism? Thus it is with Buddhism."(9) In other words, Dr. Eitel would urge that in order to deal fairly with such a subject, we must try to distinguish the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and follies that may, from time to time, have gathered round it; and this, it is to be feared, has not always been done by English writers, in treating of Buddhism.

For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to trace a brief outline of the life of Buddha, according to the belief of Buddhists generally, and stripped of such legends and superst.i.tions as find no credence with the more educated and intellectual. It is true that a doubt has sometimes been expressed as to the existence of Gautama Buddha at all; while even so eminent an authority as Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, owing to the lack of really authentic information, "it is impossible to rely implicitly on any single statement made in relation to him."(10) But even supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received traditions to be, whether in part or in entirety, a mere creation of Indian thought, the case undergoes no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the religion of Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, and only in quite a subordinate degree with the person of its supposed founder. The point is one that deserves careful attention, suggesting as it does at once the essential difference between Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable distance which divides the two. For of Christianity it is no exaggeration to say that upon the truth of the received accounts of its Founder's Life and Person its whole position absolutely depends; whereas, could it be proved that Gautama never even lived, the system a.s.sociated with his name would suffer no material loss,-and this, because in Buddha we are invited to contemplate only a teacher and a guide, one who would have men seek purification and deliverance by the same means as he himself needed to employ, and one who never claimed to be more than human. Most persons, however, will prefer to accept as, in the main, historically correct the commonly accepted outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be given-

The reputed founder of Buddhism was one Siddhartha, known in later life as Gautama, and later still, by the t.i.tle of Buddha, or the "Enlightened One." Siddhartha was a prince of the Sakya tribe, whose territories were situated some hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. Hence he is often spoken of under the name of _Sakya-muni_, or the "Sakya sage." As regards his date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes it is placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as late as the third century B.C. The most competent authorities, however, agree in following the Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 B.C. as the date of his death.(11) His father's name was Suddhodana; his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier years of Siddhartha's life we have little information that is at all to be relied on; but his early manhood appears to have been spent amid the luxury and self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. Gautama, however, was a man of great benevolence, and we are told that, while still quite young, he pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and suffering which held the human race in bondage. Presently, becoming dissatisfied with his own life of ease and pleasure, he made the "Great Renunciation;"

turning his back, at the age of thirty, on wife and parents, home and wealth. After spending some years in travel, he retired to the forest, where he attached himself to a little band of ascetics, and practised severe forms of discipline and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover the secret of release from suffering. But meeting with no success, and still fast bound by the trammels of ignorance, he betook himself to contemplation; until one day, as he was seated beneath the Bo-tree,-henceforth to be accounted sacred(12)-the struggles of his soul prevailed, and he pa.s.sed out of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to the knowledge of which Gautama thus attained, and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist doctrine, are these-(i) That man is born to suffering, both mental and physical: he experiences it himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that this suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the condition of suffering in which man finds himself admits of amelioration and relief; (iv) the way of release, and the attainment to Nirvana.

Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What is meant by _Nirvana_,-the goal of the Buddhist's hope and aim? Literally, the word means "extinction"; and hence it has often come to be regarded as a mere synonym for annihilation. The variety of opinions held by European scholars as to its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the fact that Buddhists themselves are by no means agreed as to its precise significance. Is Nirvana a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the personality perpetuated, or is the _ego_ absorbed,-i.e. into Buddha? Such questions are differently answered by the different schools. Concerning the nature of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his agnosticism, would seem to have been almost wholly silent. He appears to have simply taught that by the suppression and "extinction" of the natural pa.s.sions and desires-anger, avarice, sorrow, and the like(13)-it was possible even here to enter upon a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should attain hereafter to more perfect fulfilment. Of the various meanings attached to Nirvana by the different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it scarcely distinguishable from complete annihilation, while the opposite extreme introduces us to the doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of perfect happiness and delight. This remarkable development of Buddhism will claim our attention later.(14)

[Ill.u.s.tration.]

Daibatsu At Kamakura.

To return. After his enlightenment, it is said that Gautama was seized by the temptation to enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming his doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation from him, he began his ministry by announcing the tidings of release to the companions of his ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at length convinced. In the course of this, his first sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the eight steps on the path which leads to Nirvana-(i) Right faith, (ii) right resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) right action, (v) right living, (vi) right effort, (vii) right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As time went on, Gautama began to gather round him a number of disciples, who became his constant companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and receiving such as, attracted by his growing reputation, sought him out. The remaining months he occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming the good news of deliverance in the towns and villages through which he pa.s.sed. Soon we find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; the members of which severed their connexion with all worldly things, handed over their property to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive dress, and, following the Master's doctrine with strictness themselves, devoted their lives to its propagation. Any member, however, was at liberty to leave the Brotherhood, should he wish to do so. It is noticeable that Buddha's earliest followers were chiefly drawn-not, as in the case of a Greater than he, from the ranks of the poor and simple-but from the upper cla.s.ses.

Indeed, Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and ignorant as incapable of receiving his teaching. Children are hardly mentioned in the early Buddhist writings; and with regard to women, it was only with great reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually consented to the formation of a Sisterhood, the members of which were, as far as possible, to observe the same rules as the men-together with several additional ones, chiefly concerned with their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, it is still the teaching of Buddhism that it should be a woman's highest aspiration to be reborn as a man, in a future state of existence. When, however, the two Orders-for men and for women-had been formed, there still remained a large number of either s.e.x, who, without leaving their places in the world, were desirous of being reckoned among Buddha's followers.

These were admitted as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren.

Having exercised his public ministry for forty years-without, as would appear, encountering any great opposition-and having committed his work to the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, Buddha died, aged about eighty, and was buried with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples' expressions of apprehension and sorrow, by saying that when he should no longer be with them in person, he would still be present with them in his sayings, in his doctrine. Another point on which he laid great stress before his death was that the Brotherhood should regularly a.s.semble in convocation. Hence it came about that from very early times, the declaration, "I seek refuge in Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood)," was adopted as the formula which any one, desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, represented to-day by the three great images above the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its mult.i.tude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not that three several divinities are the objects of their adoration and their prayer.

Such, then, as would appear, was the origin of Buddhism. Strictly speaking, and apart from its later developments, Buddhism is a religion which knows no G.o.d, which attaches no value to prayer, which has no place for a priesthood. Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous than in the five main prohibitions, which are addressed alike to clergy and laity. The _first_ of these forbids the taking of life,-human life chiefly, but other life as well; the _second_ is against theft, whether by force or fraud; the _third_ is against falsehood; the _fourth_ forbids impurity, in act, word, or thought; the _fifth_ requires abstinence from all intoxicants. The whole idea of _G.o.d_, it will be noticed, is entirely absent from the Buddhist Commandments. Infinitely removed above that other agnosticism, which cries, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die,"

Buddhism starts with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. But a self-denial that is undertaken, not for G.o.d, and in G.o.d for man, but merely to secure one's own peace and well-being-what is this but selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that is essentially negative-the natural product of that blank despair of the world and of human nature which led to the Great Renunciation-Buddhism, as a religious system, has yielded but scanty fruits of positive holiness, of active benevolence. And yet,-wholly inadequate as such a system as this, even at its purest and best, must be to meet the needs of humanity,-false and even debased as are sometimes its teachings,-the one great message that Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if most imperfect, truth: the truth that would have man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to self-deliverance by means of self-control. "Work out your own salvation"

is the injunction of Christianity. "By one's self," taught Sakya-muni, "the evil is one; by one's self must come remedy and release." So far the two systems are at one; the difference between them lies in the fact that the one places in our hands those supernatural weapons which alone make real victory possible, and that these the other knows not how to supply.

Hitherto, we have made no reference to the relation of Buddhism to Brahmanism. And yet we can no more hope to understand the work of Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion with Brahmanism, than we could afford to omit all mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, in speaking of the liberation wrought by our Lord Jesus Christ. The work and doctrine of Gautama Buddha,-with their mean between an ascetic severity, on the one hand, and a licentious self-indulgence on the other-their disregard of caste distinctions-their rejection of burdensome and profitless traditions-may be said to bear to the heavy yoke of Brahmanism a relation not dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. Laying hold of that which was ready to his hand, if so be he might mould and purify it, Buddha was a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of metempsychosis, or, as it is commonly called, the "transmigration of souls." No doubt, there is a great deal connected with this doctrine in the Buddhist books that cannot but appear to us puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, we do not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such strange fancies on Buddha, or on Buddhism, as though it were from these that they sprang. So far from Sakya-muni being the originator of the theory of transmigration, a belief in it had, for centuries previously, been almost universal throughout the East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied an antidote to the belief in a practically interminable series of metempsychoses current at the time.

With the theory of transmigration accepted on all sides, Buddha seems to have made use of it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal distribution of happiness in this life, and the absence of any satisfactory exercise of justice in the way of reward or punishment.

That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have been applied by Buddhists to their great Master himself, is only what we should expect to find.