Public School Domestic Science Part 26

Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets, carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.

Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to vary the decoration.

CANNING AND PRESERVING.

Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking.

Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency, screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10 minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils.

Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit, or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not be done until the fruit has become cold.

PRESERVING.

Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.

JELLIES.

Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar.

Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a spoon.

SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.

Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats.

Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A gla.s.s of hot milk (not boiled) is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over exertion of any kind.

See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for gla.s.s and china, coa.r.s.er ones for general use. Have special cloths for kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid burning the fingers, or using an ap.r.o.n. See that a kettleful of boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.

All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more difficult to clean.

DISH WASHING.

Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of china, gla.s.s and silver ware may be placed among the arts of housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.

One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, forks and spoons by themselves. Sc.r.a.pe the dishes, empty the cups, and arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the gla.s.sware first, in moderately hot water, slip the gla.s.ses in sideways so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the gla.s.s is cut, use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry such gla.s.sware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and the gla.s.s so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse gla.s.ses which have contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any circ.u.mstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish towels, dish cloth and dish pan.

Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits of turpentine.

VENTILATION AND SANITATION.

As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1.

See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry.

Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4.

Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause unpleasant odors, to acc.u.mulate in the cellar. Unless there is a special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the housekeeper to purchase in small quant.i.ties. Remember the ventilation of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be neglected.

One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.

If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.

When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the night.

Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very cold weather.

LAUNDRY WORK.

As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found.

The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such water is known as "hard."

Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why "hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely upon soap for cleansing.

Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised.

Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot water.

_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap.

Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.

Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water.

Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions to pa.s.s into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used.

Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2 tablespoonfuls to a quart. Gra.s.s stains dissolve in alcohol. If applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.

The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Mola.s.ses, or a paste of soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water.

Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered.

Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but success is not always a.s.sured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene before water and soap touch them.

Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears.

Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight stain.

Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer.

When clean gra.s.s, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.

Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes.

This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed.

The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because the temperature is so quickly lowered.

The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and disinfectant.

WASHING OF WOOLLENS.

All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be used to make the water very soft.

Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, for the teeth become knotted and hard.