Popular Technology Volume I Part 20

THE CHEMIST.

1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements of which they are composed, or new combinations formed.

2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles.

3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, it came to be applied to the pretended art of trans.m.u.ting baser metals into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it pa.s.sed to the Arabians, who introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy.

4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that, consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold; hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of metal into gold.

5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects.

They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making it to others.

6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they either absconded, or wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes.

7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word _chemistry_ acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal medicine." Some of these visionary men a.s.serted, that the philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea.

8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length, abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments which had been inst.i.tuted on these accounts, were attended with the incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives, would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity.

9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those which had been used for so many centuries.

10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has become still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the medical art.

11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair of chemistry, in the University of Basle.

12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if G.o.d would not impart the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their universities."

13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in 1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his failures were equally conspicuous.

14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred in his own person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in 1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been before used; and upon this circ.u.mstance, his great reputation depended.

15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute, and subsequent banishment from the science.

16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important purposes to which they might be applied.

17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published a work in 1669, ent.i.tled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a new direction to chemistry, by applying it to a.n.a.lyzing and ascertaining the const.i.tuent parts of material bodies; and his system is the foundation of the science, as it now exists.

18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, and, after his death, edited the work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The princ.i.p.al work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in other countries in the north of Europe.

19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and Spain.

20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention, except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the const.i.tuent parts of air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the kingdom.

21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the theorist _phlogiston_. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from the one which it superseded, it was called the pneumatic, or anti-phlogistic system.

22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists.

23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitch.e.l.l, of Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of Middletown.

24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We, therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to general attention; a.s.suring the uninitiated, that it is beset with fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation.

[Ill.u.s.tration: APOTHECARY.]

THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.

1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, and from the East Indies and Spanish America.

2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary, physician, and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine themselves exclusively to this branch of business; for most of the druggists are also apothecaries, and sometimes operative or manufacturing chemists.

3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are usually in a crude state; and many, or most of them, must necessarily undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical nature, before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes are effected is called Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Pharmacopoeias, or Dispensatories.

4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, are conducted chiefly by the operative chemist; but those which consist merely in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together different ingredients, to form compounds, belong properly to the vocation of the apothecary.

5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quant.i.ties, prepared for application. Many of the standing compound preparations which have been authorized by the Pharmacopoeias, and which are in regular demand, he keeps ready prepared; but a great proportion of his business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of the physician, as they are needed by the patient.

6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, the physicians compound and prepare their own prescriptions; but in cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical profession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, however, they keep by them a few remedies, which can be applied in cases of emergency.

7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick persons, and administer medicines either according to his own judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are induced to study economy.

8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to make up their standing medicines according to the formulas of the Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops are subject to the visitation of censors, who have authority to destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use; so that unwholesome or inefficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The apothecaries' halls, in France, are also under the supervision of the medical faculty.

9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind established by the public authorities; yet the physicians are careful to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare their prescriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they consider men of honor; and omit, at least, to name those who have been detected in selling adulterated medicines.

10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and pharmaceutical lectures are delivered by regular professors. These inst.i.tutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a degree from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the inst.i.tution at Philadelphia, is published a quarterly journal, devoted to pharmaceutical science.

11. A Pharmacopoeia for the United States was formed at Washington, in 1820, by a delegation of physicians from the princ.i.p.al medical societies of the Union. A revision of this work is expected to be made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, are founded upon the Pharmacopoeias, and may be properly considered commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensible and real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact mode of preparation.

[Ill.u.s.tration: The DENTIST.]

THE DENTIST.

1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season.

These remedies are administered by the dentist.

2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great ma.s.s of the people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable inconveniences, to which we must submit with the same philosophy with which we meet other misfortunes.

3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of the irregularities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist.

4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life; one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth; the former are called _infant_, and the latter _adult_; and all these, at the age of six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time.