On Food And Cooking Part 84

Taffy Taffy

Hard crack

300310/149154 300310/149154

b.u.t.terscotch, brittle b.u.t.terscotch, brittle

320335/160168

Hard candies, toffee Hard candies, toffee

340/170.

Light caramel for syrups, color, and flavor Light caramel for syrups, color, and flavor

355360/180182

Spun sugar, sugar cages; medium caramel Spun sugar, sugar cages; medium caramel

375380/188190

Dark caramel Dark caramel

410/205.

Black caramel Black caramel

*Above 330F/165C, the sugar syrup is more than 99% sucrose. It no longer boils, but begins to break down and caramelize. Boiling points depend on elevation. For each 1,000 feet/305 meters above sea level, subtract 2F/1C from every boiling point listed. *Above 330F/165C, the sugar syrup is more than 99% sucrose. It no longer boils, but begins to break down and caramelize. Boiling points depend on elevation. For each 1,000 feet/305 meters above sea level, subtract 2F/1C from every boiling point listed.

How Sugar Crystals Form Sugar molecules have a natural tendency to bond to each other in orderly arrays and form dense solid ma.s.ses, or crystals. When sugar crystals are dissolved in water to make a syrup, the water molecules overcome that tendency by forming their own bonds with the sugar molecules, surrounding and separating them from each other. If the dissolved sugar molecules in a syrup get too crowded for the water molecules to keep the sugars apart from each other, the sugars will begin to bond to each other again and form crystals. When the tendency of a dissolved substance to bond to itself is exactly balanced by the water's ability to prevent this bonding, the solution is called Sugar molecules have a natural tendency to bond to each other in orderly arrays and form dense solid ma.s.ses, or crystals. When sugar crystals are dissolved in water to make a syrup, the water molecules overcome that tendency by forming their own bonds with the sugar molecules, surrounding and separating them from each other. If the dissolved sugar molecules in a syrup get too crowded for the water molecules to keep the sugars apart from each other, the sugars will begin to bond to each other again and form crystals. When the tendency of a dissolved substance to bond to itself is exactly balanced by the water's ability to prevent this bonding, the solution is called saturated. saturated.

The saturation point depends on temperature. The rapidly moving water molecules in a hot sugar solution can keep more sugar molecules dissolved than the sluggish water molecules in a cold solution can. The moment that a hot and saturated solution begins to cool, it becomes super super saturated. That is, it temporarily contains more dissolved sugar than it normally could at that temperature. And once the solution has become supersaturated, the smallest disturbance will induce sugar crystals to form and grow. As the sugar molecules gather into solid crystals, they leave the solution around them less concentrated. When the solution reaches the sugar concentration appropriate for its new temperature, the sugar crystals stop forming and growing. The sugar is now in two different states: some remains dissolved in the syrup, and some is packed in the solid crystals surrounded by the syrup. saturated. That is, it temporarily contains more dissolved sugar than it normally could at that temperature. And once the solution has become supersaturated, the smallest disturbance will induce sugar crystals to form and grow. As the sugar molecules gather into solid crystals, they leave the solution around them less concentrated. When the solution reaches the sugar concentration appropriate for its new temperature, the sugar crystals stop forming and growing. The sugar is now in two different states: some remains dissolved in the syrup, and some is packed in the solid crystals surrounded by the syrup.

There are two steps in sugar crystallization: the formation of crystal "seeds," and the growth of those seeds into mature, full-sized crystals. Seed formation determines how many crystals will form, and crystal growth determines how large they get. Both steps affect the final texture of a candy.

The growth of sugar crystals as a hot syrup cools. Left: Left: Crystals are tightly organized, solid cl.u.s.ters of molecules. Crystals are tightly organized, solid cl.u.s.ters of molecules. Center: Center: When conditions favor the formation of crystal seeds, the dissolved sugar molecules can join many seeds, the resulting crystals are small, and the candy texture is fine. When conditions favor the formation of crystal seeds, the dissolved sugar molecules can join many seeds, the resulting crystals are small, and the candy texture is fine. Right: Right: When conditions limit the formation of crystal seeds, the dissolved sugar molecules can join only a few seeds, the resulting crystals are large, and the candy texture is coa.r.s.e. When conditions limit the formation of crystal seeds, the dissolved sugar molecules can join only a few seeds, the resulting crystals are large, and the candy texture is coa.r.s.e.

Particles, Temperature, and Stirring Influence Crystallization The crystal "seed" is an initial surface to which sugar molecules can attach themselves and acc.u.mulate in a solid ma.s.s. The seed can be a few sugar molecules that happen to come together during random movements in the syrup. Stirring and agitation have the effect of b.u.mping solution molecules together more often than they otherwise would, and thereby encourage the formation of crystal seeds. Other things can also serve as seeds in a cooling syrup and initiate crystallization. Among the more common are the tiny crystals that form when the syrup spatters on the side of the pan or dries off on a spoon, and that then are stirred back into the syrup. Dust particles and even tiny air bubbles can also act as crystal seeds. A metal spoon can induce crystallization by conducting heat away from local areas of the syrup, cooling them and so leaving them super-supersaturated. Experienced candy makers therefore prevent premature crystallization by using wooden spoons, avoiding agitation of the syrup once it's cooked and begins to cool, and carefully removing dried syrup spatter from the pan walls with a moist brush. The crystal "seed" is an initial surface to which sugar molecules can attach themselves and acc.u.mulate in a solid ma.s.s. The seed can be a few sugar molecules that happen to come together during random movements in the syrup. Stirring and agitation have the effect of b.u.mping solution molecules together more often than they otherwise would, and thereby encourage the formation of crystal seeds. Other things can also serve as seeds in a cooling syrup and initiate crystallization. Among the more common are the tiny crystals that form when the syrup spatters on the side of the pan or dries off on a spoon, and that then are stirred back into the syrup. Dust particles and even tiny air bubbles can also act as crystal seeds. A metal spoon can induce crystallization by conducting heat away from local areas of the syrup, cooling them and so leaving them super-supersaturated. Experienced candy makers therefore prevent premature crystallization by using wooden spoons, avoiding agitation of the syrup once it's cooked and begins to cool, and carefully removing dried syrup spatter from the pan walls with a moist brush.

Controlling Crystal Size and Candy Texture The cook has to worry about premature crystallization because candy texture is affected by the syrup temperature at which crystallization begins. Generally, hot syrups produce coa.r.s.e crystals, and cool syrups produce fine crystals. Here's the logic. Because more sugar molecules will arrive at the crystal surface during a given time in a hot syrup with fast-moving molecules than in a cold, lethargic one, crystals grow more rapidly in hot syrups. At the same time, because stable crystal The cook has to worry about premature crystallization because candy texture is affected by the syrup temperature at which crystallization begins. Generally, hot syrups produce coa.r.s.e crystals, and cool syrups produce fine crystals. Here's the logic. Because more sugar molecules will arrive at the crystal surface during a given time in a hot syrup with fast-moving molecules than in a cold, lethargic one, crystals grow more rapidly in hot syrups. At the same time, because stable crystal seeds seeds are are less less likely to form at higher temperatures - an aggregate of a few sugar molecules is more easily knocked apart in fast-moving surroundings - the total number of crystals formed in a hot syrup will be lower. Put these two trends together, and we see that when a hot syrup begins to crystallize, it will produce fewer and larger crystals than a cool one, and therefore a coa.r.s.e texture. This is why recipes for fudge or fondant, candies with a fine, creamy texture, call for the syrup to be cooled drastically - from 235F/113C down to around 110F/43C - before the cook initiates crystallization by stirring. likely to form at higher temperatures - an aggregate of a few sugar molecules is more easily knocked apart in fast-moving surroundings - the total number of crystals formed in a hot syrup will be lower. Put these two trends together, and we see that when a hot syrup begins to crystallize, it will produce fewer and larger crystals than a cool one, and therefore a coa.r.s.e texture. This is why recipes for fudge or fondant, candies with a fine, creamy texture, call for the syrup to be cooled drastically - from 235F/113C down to around 110F/43C - before the cook initiates crystallization by stirring.

Stirring Makes Smaller Crystals Crystal size and texture are also influenced by stirring. We've seen that agitation favors the formation of crystal seeds by pushing sugar molecules into each other. A syrup that is stirred infrequently will develop only a few crystals, while one that is kept in motion continuously will produce great numbers. And the more crystals there are in a syrup, all competing for the remaining free molecules, the fewer free molecules there are to go around, and so the smaller the average size of each crystal. The more a syrup is stirred, then, the finer the consistency of the final candy. This is the justification for wearing your arm out when making fudge: the moment you let up, the formation of seeds slows down, the crystals you've made up to that point begin to grow in size, and the candy gets coa.r.s.e and grainy. Crystal size and texture are also influenced by stirring. We've seen that agitation favors the formation of crystal seeds by pushing sugar molecules into each other. A syrup that is stirred infrequently will develop only a few crystals, while one that is kept in motion continuously will produce great numbers. And the more crystals there are in a syrup, all competing for the remaining free molecules, the fewer free molecules there are to go around, and so the smaller the average size of each crystal. The more a syrup is stirred, then, the finer the consistency of the final candy. This is the justification for wearing your arm out when making fudge: the moment you let up, the formation of seeds slows down, the crystals you've made up to that point begin to grow in size, and the candy gets coa.r.s.e and grainy.

Rules for Creating Fine-Textured CandiesIn order to produce many small sugar crystals from a syrup, the candy maker should include some corn syrup in the recipe to interfere with crystal formation remove dried syrup from the pan interior before cooling the syrup allow the syrup to cool before initiating crystallization avoid agitating the syrup while it cools when the syrup is cool, agitate continuously and vigorously for as long as the syrup is workable Preventing Crystal Formation: Making Sugar into a Gla.s.s Candy makers produce an entirely different structure and texture when they cool a syrup so rapidly that the sugar molecules stop moving before they have a chance to form any crystals at all. This is how transparent hard candies are made. If the water content of the cooked syrup is just 1 or 2%, then it's essentially molten sugar with a trace of water dispersed in it. The syrup is very viscous, and if it cools quickly, the sucrose molecules never have a chance to settle into orderly crystals. Instead, they just set in place in a disorganized ma.s.s. Such an amorphous, noncrystalline material is called a Candy makers produce an entirely different structure and texture when they cool a syrup so rapidly that the sugar molecules stop moving before they have a chance to form any crystals at all. This is how transparent hard candies are made. If the water content of the cooked syrup is just 1 or 2%, then it's essentially molten sugar with a trace of water dispersed in it. The syrup is very viscous, and if it cools quickly, the sucrose molecules never have a chance to settle into orderly crystals. Instead, they just set in place in a disorganized ma.s.s. Such an amorphous, noncrystalline material is called a gla.s.s. gla.s.s. Ordinary window and table gla.s.s is a noncrystalline version of silicon dioxide. Like this mineral gla.s.s, sugar gla.s.s is brittle and transparent (and often stands in for its harder and more dangerous cousin in the movies and on stage!). Gla.s.ses are transparent because individual sugar molecules are too small to deflect light when they're randomly arranged. Crystalline solids appear opaque because even tiny crystals are solid ma.s.ses of many molecules, and their surfaces are big enough to deflect light. Ordinary window and table gla.s.s is a noncrystalline version of silicon dioxide. Like this mineral gla.s.s, sugar gla.s.s is brittle and transparent (and often stands in for its harder and more dangerous cousin in the movies and on stage!). Gla.s.ses are transparent because individual sugar molecules are too small to deflect light when they're randomly arranged. Crystalline solids appear opaque because even tiny crystals are solid ma.s.ses of many molecules, and their surfaces are big enough to deflect light.

Limiting Crystal Growth with Interfering Agents In practice, it's not easy to control or prevent the crystallization of pure sucrose syrups, and candy makers have long relied on other ingredients that interfere with and therefore limit crystal formation and growth. These interfering agents help the cook prepare clear noncrystalline hard candies and fine-textured creams, fudges, and other soft candies. In practice, it's not easy to control or prevent the crystallization of pure sucrose syrups, and candy makers have long relied on other ingredients that interfere with and therefore limit crystal formation and growth. These interfering agents help the cook prepare clear noncrystalline hard candies and fine-textured creams, fudges, and other soft candies.

Crystalline and gla.s.sy candies. Left: Left: When a hot syrup cools slowly enough for the molecules to cl.u.s.ter together, they form tightly organized crystals. When a hot syrup cools slowly enough for the molecules to cl.u.s.ter together, they form tightly organized crystals. Right: Right: When a very concentrated syrup cools quickly and traps the sugar molecules in place before they can cl.u.s.ter, they solidify into a disorganized, noncrystalline gla.s.s. When a very concentrated syrup cools quickly and traps the sugar molecules in place before they can cl.u.s.ter, they solidify into a disorganized, noncrystalline gla.s.s.

Invert Sugar The original interfering agents were glucose and fructose, or "invert sugar" (p. 655). When heated along with a small amount of acid (often cream of tartar), sucrose is broken down into its two components, glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose interfere with sucrose crystallization by bonding temporarily to the crystal surface and blocking the way of sucrose molecules. Honey is a natural source of invert sugar, and "invert syrup" is an artificial preparation of a glucose-fructose mixture. Thanks to their fructose content, both honey and invert syrup readily caramelize and can cause undesirable browning in some sweets. Acid-inverted syrups brown less because their acidity slows caramelization. The original interfering agents were glucose and fructose, or "invert sugar" (p. 655). When heated along with a small amount of acid (often cream of tartar), sucrose is broken down into its two components, glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose interfere with sucrose crystallization by bonding temporarily to the crystal surface and blocking the way of sucrose molecules. Honey is a natural source of invert sugar, and "invert syrup" is an artificial preparation of a glucose-fructose mixture. Thanks to their fructose content, both honey and invert syrup readily caramelize and can cause undesirable browning in some sweets. Acid-inverted syrups brown less because their acidity slows caramelization.

Corn Syrup Because acid treatment of sucrose is somewhat unpredictable, most modern confectioners instead use corn syrup, which is an especially effective inhibitor of crystallization, and doesn't readily caramelize. The a.s.sorted long glucose chains form a tangle that impedes the motion of both sugar and water molecules and makes it more difficult for the sucrose to find a crystal onto which to fit. The glucose and maltose molecules interfere in the same way that invert sugar does. Corn syrup also provides body and chewiness, is less sweet than sugars, and has the advantage for manufacturers of being less expensive than crystalline sugar. Because acid treatment of sucrose is somewhat unpredictable, most modern confectioners instead use corn syrup, which is an especially effective inhibitor of crystallization, and doesn't readily caramelize. The a.s.sorted long glucose chains form a tangle that impedes the motion of both sugar and water molecules and makes it more difficult for the sucrose to find a crystal onto which to fit. The glucose and maltose molecules interfere in the same way that invert sugar does. Corn syrup also provides body and chewiness, is less sweet than sugars, and has the advantage for manufacturers of being less expensive than crystalline sugar.

Other Candy Ingredients Confectioners add a number of other ingredients to the basic sugar syrup for candies to modify taste and texture. All interfere with sucrose crystallization to some extent and so tend to encourage finer crystals. Confectioners add a number of other ingredients to the basic sugar syrup for candies to modify taste and texture. All interfere with sucrose crystallization to some extent and so tend to encourage finer crystals.

Milk Proteins and Fat Milk proteins thicken candy body and, because they brown easily, add a rich flavor to caramels and fudge. The casein proteins contribute to a chewy body, whey proteins to browning and flavor development, and both help emulsify and stabilize b.u.t.terfat droplets. b.u.t.terfat lends smoothness and moistness to b.u.t.terscotch, caramel, toffee, and fudge, and reduces the tendency of chewy candies to stick to the teeth. Because milk proteins curdle in acid conditions, and caramelization and browning reactions generate acids, candies that include milk solids are sometimes neutralized with baking soda. The reaction between acids and baking soda generates bubbles of carbon dioxide, so such candies may be filled with small bubbles that give them a more fragile texture, less chewy or hard or clinging. Milk proteins thicken candy body and, because they brown easily, add a rich flavor to caramels and fudge. The casein proteins contribute to a chewy body, whey proteins to browning and flavor development, and both help emulsify and stabilize b.u.t.terfat droplets. b.u.t.terfat lends smoothness and moistness to b.u.t.terscotch, caramel, toffee, and fudge, and reduces the tendency of chewy candies to stick to the teeth. Because milk proteins curdle in acid conditions, and caramelization and browning reactions generate acids, candies that include milk solids are sometimes neutralized with baking soda. The reaction between acids and baking soda generates bubbles of carbon dioxide, so such candies may be filled with small bubbles that give them a more fragile texture, less chewy or hard or clinging.

Gelling Agents Confectioners also give a firmer body to certain candies with a number of ingredients that bond to each other and to water to form solid but moist gels. These ingredients include gelatin, egg white, grain starches and flours, pectin, and plant gums. Gelatin and pectin in particular are used to make gummy and jelly candies, often in combination. Gelatin provides a tough chewiness, while pectin makes a more tender gel. Gum tragacanth, a carbohydrate from a West Asian shrub in the bean family ( Confectioners also give a firmer body to certain candies with a number of ingredients that bond to each other and to water to form solid but moist gels. These ingredients include gelatin, egg white, grain starches and flours, pectin, and plant gums. Gelatin and pectin in particular are used to make gummy and jelly candies, often in combination. Gelatin provides a tough chewiness, while pectin makes a more tender gel. Gum tragacanth, a carbohydrate from a West Asian shrub in the bean family (Astragalus), has been used for centuries to make the sugar dough from which lozenges are cut and dried.

Candy ColorsMany candies are intensely colored to strike the eye as strongly as the taste buds. The pigments in such candies are generally synthesized from petroleum by-products, and are much more intense and stable than natural colorings. Iridescent effects are produced with a combination of thin plates of mica (pota.s.sium aluminum silicate) and either t.i.tanium dioxide or ferric oxide (mineral pigments).

Acids Many candies include an acid ingredient to balance the overwhelming sweetness. Jelly beans, for example, have a tart surface. These flavoring acids are added after the syrup has cooled down, so as to avoid excessive inversion of the sucrose into glucose and fructose. Different acids are said to have different taste profiles. Citric and tartaric acids give a rapid impression of acidity, while malic, lactic, and fumaric acids are slower to register on the tongue. Many candies include an acid ingredient to balance the overwhelming sweetness. Jelly beans, for example, have a tart surface. These flavoring acids are added after the syrup has cooled down, so as to avoid excessive inversion of the sucrose into glucose and fructose. Different acids are said to have different taste profiles. Citric and tartaric acids give a rapid impression of acidity, while malic, lactic, and fumaric acids are slower to register on the tongue.

Kinds of Candies It's convenient to divide sugar confections into three groups: noncrystalline candies, crystalline candies, and candies whose texture is modified with gums, gels, and pastes. In practice these groups overlap: there are crystalline and noncrystalline versions of caramels, hard candies, nougat, sugar work, and so on. Here are brief descriptions of the princ.i.p.al candies made today.

Noncrystalline Candies: Hard Candies, Brittles, Caramel and Taffy, Sugar Work Hard Candies Hard candies are the simplest noncrystalline candies; they include hard drops, clear mints, b.u.t.terscotch, bonbons, lollipops, and so on. Hard candy is made by boiling the syrup high enough that the final solid will contain only 1 or 2% moisture, then pouring the syrup onto a surface and cooling it down, kneading in colors and flavors while it's still malleable, and shaping it. The very high sugar concentration makes this syrup liable to form crystals at the slightest excuse, so a substantial proportion of corn syrup is used to prevent this and produce a clear sugar gla.s.s. The high cooking temperatures also encourage caramelization and a yellow-brown discoloration, which are not desirable in these candies; they're often manufactured under reduced pressure, which allows them to reach the proper sugar concentration at a lower temperature. Hard candies are the simplest noncrystalline candies; they include hard drops, clear mints, b.u.t.terscotch, bonbons, lollipops, and so on. Hard candy is made by boiling the syrup high enough that the final solid will contain only 1 or 2% moisture, then pouring the syrup onto a surface and cooling it down, kneading in colors and flavors while it's still malleable, and shaping it. The very high sugar concentration makes this syrup liable to form crystals at the slightest excuse, so a substantial proportion of corn syrup is used to prevent this and produce a clear sugar gla.s.s. The high cooking temperatures also encourage caramelization and a yellow-brown discoloration, which are not desirable in these candies; they're often manufactured under reduced pressure, which allows them to reach the proper sugar concentration at a lower temperature.

The Composition of Some Popular Candies The more sugars and the less water a candy contains, the harder its texture. Glucose sugars and chains (corn syrup) are included in candy syrups to prevent sucrose crystallization (hard candies, gummy candies) or to limit it (caramels, fudge, fondant).

Intentionally Crystalline Hard Candies The development of crystals is considered a defect in many hard candies, and results from too little interfering corn syrup, or the introduction of seed crystals from the pan sides, or too much moisture in the syrup. But some hard candies are intentionally manipulated to form tiny crystals, which give the candy a "short," more crumbly texture. Candy canes and after-dinner mints are common examples of such confections. An opaque but satin-or silk-like sheen results when the cooled but malleable syrup is repeatedly pulled and folded back onto itself. This working incorporates some air bubbles, and these in turn encourage the formation of tiny sucrose crystals. Both bubbles and crystals interrupt the candy structure, giving it a crisp, light quality and making it easier to break between the teeth. (See "Sugar Work" below.) The development of crystals is considered a defect in many hard candies, and results from too little interfering corn syrup, or the introduction of seed crystals from the pan sides, or too much moisture in the syrup. But some hard candies are intentionally manipulated to form tiny crystals, which give the candy a "short," more crumbly texture. Candy canes and after-dinner mints are common examples of such confections. An opaque but satin-or silk-like sheen results when the cooled but malleable syrup is repeatedly pulled and folded back onto itself. This working incorporates some air bubbles, and these in turn encourage the formation of tiny sucrose crystals. Both bubbles and crystals interrupt the candy structure, giving it a crisp, light quality and making it easier to break between the teeth. (See "Sugar Work" below.) Cotton Candy Cotton candy or candy floss is a very different kind of hard candy, filaments of sugar gla.s.s so fine that they have the consistency of a cotton ball and dissolve away the moment they touch the moist mouth. Cotton candy is made in a special machine that melts the sugar and forces it through tiny spinnerets into the air, where it instantly solidifies into threads. It was introduced at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis. Cotton candy or candy floss is a very different kind of hard candy, filaments of sugar gla.s.s so fine that they have the consistency of a cotton ball and dissolve away the moment they touch the moist mouth. Cotton candy is made in a special machine that melts the sugar and forces it through tiny spinnerets into the air, where it instantly solidifies into threads. It was introduced at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis.

Brittles Brittles are also cooked to a very low moisture content, around 2%, but unlike the other hard candies, they include b.u.t.ter and milk solids, and usually pieces of nuts. They're thus opaque with fat droplets and protein particles, and brown in color thanks to extensive browning reactions between sugars and proteins. Baking soda is often added to brittle syrups after they're cooked, for several reasons: alkaline conditions favor browning reactions, help neutralize some of the acids produced thereby, and the bubbles of carbon dioxide that result from this neutralization become trapped in the candy, giving it a lighter texture. The original French Brittles are also cooked to a very low moisture content, around 2%, but unlike the other hard candies, they include b.u.t.ter and milk solids, and usually pieces of nuts. They're thus opaque with fat droplets and protein particles, and brown in color thanks to extensive browning reactions between sugars and proteins. Baking soda is often added to brittle syrups after they're cooked, for several reasons: alkaline conditions favor browning reactions, help neutralize some of the acids produced thereby, and the bubbles of carbon dioxide that result from this neutralization become trapped in the candy, giving it a lighter texture. The original French praline praline was a brittle made with almonds. (The modern New Orleans praline is soft and chewy, more like a caramel, and contains New-World pecans instead of almonds.) was a brittle made with almonds. (The modern New Orleans praline is soft and chewy, more like a caramel, and contains New-World pecans instead of almonds.) Caramel, Caramels, CaramelizationThese very similar words mean somewhat different things, and aren't always used consistently.

Caramelization is the cooking of a plain sugar syrup until it turns brown and aromatic. It is similar to the browning or Maillard reactions that give color and aroma to roasted meats, baked goods, and other complex foods, but unlike the browning reactions it proceeds in the absence of amino acids and proteins. It requires higher temperatures than the browning reactions, and produces a different mixture of aromatic compounds and therefore a different flavor (p. 777). Cooks have spoken of "caramelized" or "carmelized" meats for better than a century, but this is not really correct. is the cooking of a plain sugar syrup until it turns brown and aromatic. It is similar to the browning or Maillard reactions that give color and aroma to roasted meats, baked goods, and other complex foods, but unlike the browning reactions it proceeds in the absence of amino acids and proteins. It requires higher temperatures than the browning reactions, and produces a different mixture of aromatic compounds and therefore a different flavor (p. 777). Cooks have spoken of "caramelized" or "carmelized" meats for better than a century, but this is not really correct.

Caramel is first of all the brown, sweet, aromatic syrup produced in caramelization, which may be used as coloring and/or flavoring ingredient in many preparations. But cooks use the same word to mean the combination of caramelized sugar and various milk products, ideally cream, which are mixed while the sugar is still hot so that the milk solids are browned and generate color and aroma as well. This kind of caramel is often used as a sauce. is first of all the brown, sweet, aromatic syrup produced in caramelization, which may be used as coloring and/or flavoring ingredient in many preparations. But cooks use the same word to mean the combination of caramelized sugar and various milk products, ideally cream, which are mixed while the sugar is still hot so that the milk solids are browned and generate color and aroma as well. This kind of caramel is often used as a sauce.

Caramels are solid candies made from a mixture of caramelized sugar and cream. are solid candies made from a mixture of caramelized sugar and cream.

Caramels, Toffees, and Taffies Caramels and their relatives are generally noncrystalline candies that contain milkfat and milk solids, usually in the concentrated form of sweetened condensed milk. (Cheap versions are made with milk powder and vegetable shortening.) They are chewy rather than hard, and wonderfully mouthwatering because chewing liberates droplets of b.u.t.terfat from the sugar ma.s.s. Their chewiness comes from a lower cooking temperature and so a higher moisture content than hard candies, a large proportion of corn syrup, and the presence of milk casein proteins. The characteristic caramel flavor develops from the milk ingredients and reactions between these and the syrup sugars during the cooking. In Britain, b.u.t.ter for toffee was often stored to develop some rancidity (from free butyric acid), which produced a desirably stronger dairy flavor in the finished candy. (American chocolate manufacturers have done much the same thing; see box, p. 703). The higher the fat content, the less these candies stick to the teeth. Caramels and their relatives are generally noncrystalline candies that contain milkfat and milk solids, usually in the concentrated form of sweetened condensed milk. (Cheap versions are made with milk powder and vegetable shortening.) They are chewy rather than hard, and wonderfully mouthwatering because chewing liberates droplets of b.u.t.terfat from the sugar ma.s.s. Their chewiness comes from a lower cooking temperature and so a higher moisture content than hard candies, a large proportion of corn syrup, and the presence of milk casein proteins. The characteristic caramel flavor develops from the milk ingredients and reactions between these and the syrup sugars during the cooking. In Britain, b.u.t.ter for toffee was often stored to develop some rancidity (from free butyric acid), which produced a desirably stronger dairy flavor in the finished candy. (American chocolate manufacturers have done much the same thing; see box, p. 703). The higher the fat content, the less these candies stick to the teeth.

Caramels are cooked to the lowest temperature of the noncrystalline candies, have the highest moisture content, and are the softest. Toffees and taffies contain less b.u.t.ter and milk solids - taffies sometimes none at all - and are cooked 50F hotter than caramels, so they're more firm. Taffies are often pulled to produce an aerated, finely crystalline, less dense, less chewy version. Caramels made with dairy products owe some of their flavor to caramelized sugar, but they include flavors from the Maillard reactions. Like the terminology, caramelized sugar and dairy flavors blend easily with each other. This may be in part because one of the important products of sugar caramelization is diacetyl, an aromatic chemical that provides the p.r.o.nounced b.u.t.tery aroma of cultured b.u.t.ter(p. 35). Caramel has a rich, complex flavor and consistency, viscous and sticky and creamy all at once, that works well with most sweets and fruits, with coffee and chocolate, and even with salt: the prized caramels of Brittany are made with a notable dose of sea salt.

Sugar Work The most spectacular sugar preparations are those that take advantage of sugar's similarity to gla.s.s: its transparency and capacity to be sculpted, blown, and drawn out into countless shapes. "Sugar work," as such preparations are called, goes back at least 500 years. A "nest of silken threads," probably similar to our spun sugar, was made from malt syrup for the Chinese Imperial household before 1600; and in 17th-century Italy, various banquet decorations, including dishes, were made from sugar. In j.a.pan, there is a traditional street entertainment called "sweet candy craft," The most spectacular sugar preparations are those that take advantage of sugar's similarity to gla.s.s: its transparency and capacity to be sculpted, blown, and drawn out into countless shapes. "Sugar work," as such preparations are called, goes back at least 500 years. A "nest of silken threads," probably similar to our spun sugar, was made from malt syrup for the Chinese Imperial household before 1600; and in 17th-century Italy, various banquet decorations, including dishes, were made from sugar. In j.a.pan, there is a traditional street entertainment called "sweet candy craft," amezaiku, amezaiku, in which the performers sculpt flowers, animals, and other shapes while people watch. in which the performers sculpt flowers, animals, and other shapes while people watch.

The basic material for sugar work is molten sucrose mixed with a large portion of glucose and fructose to help prevent crystallization. The glucose and fructose may be added in the form of corn syrup, or the pure sugars, or they may be formed from the sucrose itself during the cooking of the syrup with added acid (cream of tartar). The sugar mixture is heated until it reaches 315330F/157166C, at which point there is practically no water left. Any residual water can cause crystallization and milkiness by making it easier for the sucrose molecules to move around and nest together. At somewhat higher temperatures, the sugar begins to caramelize and turn yellow-brown, which is undesirable for much sugar work but encouraged for spun sugar and sugar cages, which are made by drizzling the hot syrup in threads over a solid form or a wooden rack, where they harden almost instantly. For more elaborate sugar work, the entire sugar ma.s.s is cooled to around 130120F/5550C, a range in which it has a pliable, doughy consistency. Now it can be handled and formed, blown like gla.s.s into hollow spheres and other shapes, and kept workable with a heat lamp. Though pastry chefs with seasoned fingertips can sculpt sugar barehanded, many use thin latex gloves in order to avoid transferring moisture and skin oils from their fingers.

One of the more striking forms of sugar work is pulled sugar, which develops a lovely delicate satin-like opacity. The cook pulls a piece of the sugar mixture into a long rope, then folds and twists it onto itself and pulls again. By repeating this action many times, he forms the sugar mixture into many fine, partly crystalline strands separated by columns of air, a combination that becomes a solid fabric of shiny threads.

Crystalline Candies: Rock Candy, Fondant, Fudge, Panned Candies, Lozenges About the only candy in which large, coa.r.s.e crystals are valued is rock candy, a vivid demonstration of crystal growth. Simply cook a syrup to the hard ball stage, then pour into a small gla.s.s, with a toothpick to serve as a removable foundation, and let it sit for a few days. The resulting crystals can be preserved by washing the encrusted stick briefly under cold water, shaking off the excess, and letting it dry. About the only candy in which large, coa.r.s.e crystals are valued is rock candy, a vivid demonstration of crystal growth. Simply cook a syrup to the hard ball stage, then pour into a small gla.s.s, with a toothpick to serve as a removable foundation, and let it sit for a few days. The resulting crystals can be preserved by washing the encrusted stick briefly under cold water, shaking off the excess, and letting it dry.

Fondant and Fudge Fondant and fudge are the two most common finely crystalline candies, whose nature is to dissolve to a creamy consistency on the tongue. The name Fondant and fudge are the two most common finely crystalline candies, whose nature is to dissolve to a creamy consistency on the tongue. The name fondant fondant comes from the French comes from the French fondre, fondre, meaning "to melt," and fondant is the base for what are called candy "creams," the flavored, moist, melt-in-the-mouth interiors of filled chocolates and other candies. It also serves as an icing for cakes and pastries; it can be rolled out and molded onto a cake, or warmed or thinned until runny and poured into a thin layer. Fudge is essentially fondant made with added milk, fat, and sometimes chocolate solids (it can also be thought of as a crystallized version of caramel). Penuche is fondant made with brown sugar (some New Orleans pralines are penuche that includes pecans). meaning "to melt," and fondant is the base for what are called candy "creams," the flavored, moist, melt-in-the-mouth interiors of filled chocolates and other candies. It also serves as an icing for cakes and pastries; it can be rolled out and molded onto a cake, or warmed or thinned until runny and poured into a thin layer. Fudge is essentially fondant made with added milk, fat, and sometimes chocolate solids (it can also be thought of as a crystallized version of caramel). Penuche is fondant made with brown sugar (some New Orleans pralines are penuche that includes pecans).

Fondant and fudge are made with the help of corn syrup, which favors the production of small crystals. After the syrup has been boiled and then cooled to 130100F/5438C, the cook beats it continuously for about 15 minutes, until crystallization is complete.

The texture of these candies depends on how much water they're left with. If the syrup has become especially concentrated, the texture will be dry and crumbly, the appearance dull; if it's less cooked or absorbs moisture from the air during cooling and beating, it will be soft, even runny, the appearance glossy thanks to the abundance of syrup between crystals. Small variations in water content - just 1 or 2% - make a noticeable difference. Fudge is more complex than fondant, its syrup carrying milk solids and fat droplets as well as sugar crystals.

Panned Candies These are the modern version of the medieval These are the modern version of the medieval dragees dragees: flavorful nuts or spices coated in sugar. There are two basic ways to coat candies in a pan. In hard panning, the nut or spice or other center is rolled around a hot pan and periodically sprayed with a concentrated sucrose syrup, whose moisture evaporates and leaves behind tightly interlocked, hard layers of crystals, just 0.010.02 mm thick. In soft panning, most often applied to jellybeans, the jelly candy is rolled around in a cool pan with a glucose syrup and powdered sugar. Instead of crystallizing, the syrup is absorbed by the powder, and excess moisture is dried off. Soft-panned layers are thicker and less crystalline.

Lozenges Lozenges are among the oldest and simplest of confections - they require no high-temperature cooking. They're made by preparing a binding agent in water - gum tragacanth is standard, though gelatin also works - and then making a "dough" by adding finely ground icing sugar and flavoring. The dough is then rolled out, cut into pieces, and dried. Lozenges have a crumbly texture. Lozenges are among the oldest and simplest of confections - they require no high-temperature cooking. They're made by preparing a binding agent in water - gum tragacanth is standard, though gelatin also works - and then making a "dough" by adding finely ground icing sugar and flavoring. The dough is then rolled out, cut into pieces, and dried. Lozenges have a crumbly texture.

Aerated Candies: Marshmallow, Nougat Candies with a light, chewy texture are made by combining a sugar syrup with an ingredient that forms a stable foam. Egg whites, gelatin, and soy protein are the most common foaming agents. Usually they and interfering agents prevent the syrup from crystallizing, but some aerated candies are made crystalline by combining a fine fondant with the foam. Candies with a light, chewy texture are made by combining a sugar syrup with an ingredient that forms a stable foam. Egg whites, gelatin, and soy protein are the most common foaming agents. Usually they and interfering agents prevent the syrup from crystallizing, but some aerated candies are made crystalline by combining a fine fondant with the foam.

Marshmallows Marshmallows were first made in France from the gummy root juice of the marsh mallow ( Marshmallows were first made in France from the gummy root juice of the marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis), a weedy relative of the hollyhock; the confection was called pate de Guimauve. pate de Guimauve. The juice was mixed with eggs and sugar and then beaten to a foam. Today, marshmallows are made by combining a viscous protein solution, usually gelatin, with a sugar syrup concentrated to about the caramel stage, and whipping the mixture to incorporate air bubbles. The protein molecules collect in the bubble walls, and this reinforcement, together with the viscosity of the syrup, stabilizes the foam structure. The gelatin accounts for 23% of the mixture, and produces a somewhat elastic texture. Marshmallows made with egg whites are lighter and softer. The juice was mixed with eggs and sugar and then beaten to a foam. Today, marshmallows are made by combining a viscous protein solution, usually gelatin, with a sugar syrup concentrated to about the caramel stage, and whipping the mixture to incorporate air bubbles. The protein molecules collect in the bubble walls, and this reinforcement, together with the viscosity of the syrup, stabilizes the foam structure. The gelatin accounts for 23% of the mixture, and produces a somewhat elastic texture. Marshmallows made with egg whites are lighter and softer.

Nougat Nougat is a traditional sugar candy made in Provence that contains nuts and is aerated with egg-white foam. Italian Nougat is a traditional sugar candy made in Provence that contains nuts and is aerated with egg-white foam. Italian torrone torrone and Spanish and Spanish turron turron are similar. It's a cross between a meringue and a candy, and is made by preparing a meringue and then streaming hot, concentrated sugar syrup into it while continuing to beat. It can be either soft and chewy or hard and crunchy depending on the degree to which the sugar syrup is cooked and the proportion of sugar syrup to egg white. Honey is often an ingredient. are similar. It's a cross between a meringue and a candy, and is made by preparing a meringue and then streaming hot, concentrated sugar syrup into it while continuing to beat. It can be either soft and chewy or hard and crunchy depending on the degree to which the sugar syrup is cooked and the proportion of sugar syrup to egg white. Honey is often an ingredient.

Flashy Candies: Lightning in the MouthMix together crystals of table sugar and essence of wintergreen and you get something startling: a candy that seems to give off sparks when you eat it! When highly orderly sucrose crystals are fractured between the teeth, the sudden split leaves an imbalance of electrical charge between the two pieces: there are more electrons on one side than the other. The electrons then jump the gap to the more positively charged piece. En route, they collide with nitrogen molecules in the air, which then discharge the sudden jolt of kinetic energy in the form of light energy. The same kinds of electron jumping and colliding produce lightning strikes between electrically charged clouds and the earth. Of course, sugar crystals give off a much weaker glow than true lightning. And much of that glow is in the invisible ultraviolet part of the light spectrum. Here's where the wintergreen plays a role. Its aromatic essence, methyl salicylate, is fluorescent: it absorbs the invisible ultraviolet rays and re-radiates them in the visible part of the light spectrum. It thus amplifies the dimmer sucrose glow to the point that, in a dark room, we can see blue flashes when the candy is crushed.

Chewy Jelly and Paste Candies; Marzipan A number of different candies are made by incorporating a sugar syrup into a solution of starch, gelatin, pectin, or plant gums, and then allowing the mixture to solidify into a dense, chewy ma.s.s. In j.a.pan and elsewhere in Asia, sweets are often gelled with the seaweed extract agar (p. 609), which is effective in unusually small amounts (as little as 0.1% of the mix). A number of different candies are made by incorporating a sugar syrup into a solution of starch, gelatin, pectin, or plant gums, and then allowing the mixture to solidify into a dense, chewy ma.s.s. In j.a.pan and elsewhere in Asia, sweets are often gelled with the seaweed extract agar (p. 609), which is effective in unusually small amounts (as little as 0.1% of the mix).

Turkish Delight Turkish delight, or Turkish delight, or lok.u.m rahat lok.u.m rahat in Turkish, is one of the most venerable of this kind, having been made in the Middle East and the Balkans for centuries. It is thickened with starch (around 4%), translucent, and traditionally flavored with essence of rose. in Turkish, is one of the most venerable of this kind, having been made in the Middle East and the Balkans for centuries. It is thickened with starch (around 4%), translucent, and traditionally flavored with essence of rose.

Licorice Licorice is usually made with wheat flour and mola.s.ses, around 30% and 60% of the mix respectively, with licorice extract around 5%; it's dense and opaque, like its flavor. The licorice is often complemented with anise, and in Scandinavian countries there's a curious pairing of licorice with ammonia - in foods, an aroma usually encountered only in overripe cheeses! Licorice is usually made with wheat flour and mola.s.ses, around 30% and 60% of the mix respectively, with licorice extract around 5%; it's dense and opaque, like its flavor. The licorice is often complemented with anise, and in Scandinavian countries there's a curious pairing of licorice with ammonia - in foods, an aroma usually encountered only in overripe cheeses!

Jelly Beans and Gummy Candies These favorites are made with approximately equal weights of sucrose and corn syrup and a mixture of gelatin and pectin. The gelatin may be between 5 and 15% of the candy weight, and by itself produces an increasingly elastic, even rubbery texture; pectin at around 1% introduces a complex microstructure into the candy, gives a shorter, more crumbly texture and also causes candy tastes and aromas to seem more intense. Gelatin is degraded in high heat, so a concentrated solution is added to the sugar syrup after it has been cooked and mostly cooled. These candies are relatively moist, being about 15% water. These favorites are made with approximately equal weights of sucrose and corn syrup and a mixture of gelatin and pectin. The gelatin may be between 5 and 15% of the candy weight, and by itself produces an increasingly elastic, even rubbery texture; pectin at around 1% introduces a complex microstructure into the candy, gives a shorter, more crumbly texture and also causes candy tastes and aromas to seem more intense. Gelatin is degraded in high heat, so a concentrated solution is added to the sugar syrup after it has been cooked and mostly cooled. These candies are relatively moist, being about 15% water.

Marzipan Marzipan is essentially a paste of sugar and almonds, has been made in the Middle East and Mediterranean region for centuries, and is especially prized as a sculptural material; it's shaped and colored to resemble fruits and vegetables, animals, people, and many other objects. The solid phase in nut pastes like marzipan is provided by finely granulated sugar and the particles of nut proteins and carbohydrates. It can be made by cooking almonds and syrup together and then cooling and crystallizing the mixture; or ground almonds can be mixed with a premade fondant and powdered sugar. Egg white or gelatin is sometimes added to improve the binding. Marzipan is essentially a paste of sugar and almonds, has been made in the Middle East and Mediterranean region for centuries, and is especially prized as a sculptural material; it's shaped and colored to resemble fruits and vegetables, animals, people, and many other objects. The solid phase in nut pastes like marzipan is provided by finely granulated sugar and the particles of nut proteins and carbohydrates. It can be made by cooking almonds and syrup together and then cooling and crystallizing the mixture; or ground almonds can be mixed with a premade fondant and powdered sugar. Egg white or gelatin is sometimes added to improve the binding.

Fizzy and Crackling CandiesCandies that fizz and crackle in the mouth were developed in the 19th century by embedding the equivalent of baking powder in a very low-moisture sugar syrup as it cools and hardens. Remember that baking powder is a mixture of an acid together with alkaline baking soda. When the two components are moistened together in a batter, they react to produce carbon dioxide gas. Similarly, when the dry crystals of citric or malic acid and sodium bicarbonate in a candy are moistened together in the mouth, they react and form bubbles of carbon dioxide that provide the sensation of tartness and p.r.i.c.kly foaminess.A 20th-century industrial twist on this idea produced Pop or s.p.a.ce Rocks, which instantly burst and then disappear in the mouth. A scientist at General Foods found that he could supercharge a concentrated sugar syrup with carbon dioxide gas, then chill it down quickly and under pressure to lock the gas in the solidified candy. When the candy is depressurized much of the gas escapes, but some remains. And when the candy dissolves in the mouth's moisture, the gas bursts out with a startling crackle. Some chefs use these gasified candies as a source of unexpected sensations; they embed them in dishes that are sufficiently dry or cold not to dissolve them prematurely.

Chewing Gum This quintessentially American confection has ancient roots. Humans have chewed on gums, resins, and latexes secreted by various plants for thousands of years. The Greeks named the resin of a kind of pistachio tree with their word for "to grind the teeth together, to chew": that was mastic (p. 421), whose root also gives us "masticate." Europeans and North Americans chewed the relatively harsh resin of spruce trees; and the Maya chewed chicle, the latex of the sapodilla tree (Achras sapote), ten centuries before it was commercialized in New York City. The idea of mixing gum with sugar goes back to the early Arab sugar traders, who used the exudation of certain kinds of acacia, a substance now known as gum arabic. It and gum tragacanth are slightly soluble and eventually dissolve when chewed; they were used in early medicine as carriers that would release drugs slowly. This is still one of the purposes of chewing gum, which are to release a pleasant flavor for some time while giving the jaw muscles something to do and stimulating a cleansing flow of saliva.

Gum in America The history of modern chewing gums begins in 1869, when a New York inventor by the name of Thomas Adams was introduced to chicle from Central and South America. Chicle is a latex, a milky, water-based plant fluid that carries tiny droplets of long, coiled carbon-hydrogen chains. These chains have the property of being elastic: they uncoil and stretch out when pulled, but snap back when released. The best known of these latex substances is rubber. Adams got the idea of using the chicle as a gum base, and patented chicle gum in 1871. With sugar and sa.s.safras or licorice flavorings, it quickly caught on. By 1900, entrepreneurs with such names as Fleer and Wrigley had developed gumb.a.l.l.s and peppermint and spearmint flavors, and in 1928 a Fleer employee perfected bubble gum by developing a very elastic latex mixture from longer hydrocarbon polymers. The history of modern chewing gums begins in 1869, when a New York inventor by the name of Thomas Adams was introduced to chicle from Central and South America. Chicle is a latex, a milky, water-based plant fluid that carries tiny droplets of long, coiled carbon-hydrogen chains. These chains have the property of being elastic: they uncoil and stretch out when pulled, but snap back when released. The best known of these latex substances is rubber. Adams got the idea of using the chicle as a gum base, and patented chicle gum in 1871. With sugar and sa.s.safras or licorice flavorings, it quickly caught on. By 1900, entrepreneurs with such names as Fleer and Wrigley had developed gumb.a.l.l.s and peppermint and spearmint flavors, and in 1928 a Fleer employee perfected bubble gum by developing a very elastic latex mixture from longer hydrocarbon polymers.

Modern Synthetic Gums Today, chewing gum is made mostly of synthetic polymers, especially styrene-butadiene rubber - also found in auto tires - and polyvinyl acetate - in adhesives and paints - though some brands still contain chicle or jelutong, a natural latex from the Far East. The crude gum base is first filtered, dried, and then cooked in water until syrupy. Powdered sugar and corn syrup are mixed in, then flavorings and softeners - vegetable oil derivatives that make the gum easier to chew - and the material is cooled, kneaded to an even, smooth texture, cut, rolled thin, and cut again into strips, and packaged. The final product is about 60% sugar, 20% corn syrup, and 20% gum materials. Sugar-free gums are made using sugar alcohols and intensive sweeteners (p. 659). Today, chewing gum is made mostly of synthetic polymers, especially styrene-butadiene rubber - also found in auto tires - and polyvinyl acetate - in adhesives and paints - though some brands still contain chicle or jelutong, a natural latex from the Far East. The crude gum base is first filtered, dried, and then cooked in water until syrupy. Powdered sugar and corn syrup are mixed in, then flavorings and softeners - vegetable oil derivatives that make the gum easier to chew - and the material is cooled, kneaded to an even, smooth texture, cut, rolled thin, and cut again into strips, and packaged. The final product is about 60% sugar, 20% corn syrup, and 20% gum materials. Sugar-free gums are made using sugar alcohols and intensive sweeteners (p. 659).

Candy Storage and Spoilage Because of their generally low water content and concentrated sugars, which draw moisture out of living cells, candies are seldom spoiled by the growth of bacteria or molds. Their flavor can be degraded, however, by the oxidation and consequent rancidity of added fats, whether in milk solids or b.u.t.ter. This process can be slowed down by refrigeration or freezing, but cold storage encourages another problem called "sugar bloom." Changes in temperature can cause moisture from the air to condense on the candy surface, and some sugar will dissolve into the liquid. When the moisture evaporates again or is drawn deeper into the candy, the surface sugar crystallizes into a rough, white coating. Airtight wrapping will prevent sugar bloom.

Chocolate Chocolate is one of our most remarkable foods. It is made from the astringent, bitter, and otherwise bland seeds of a tropical tree, yet its flavor is exceptionally rich, complex, and versatile, the product of both fermentation and roasting. Its consistency is like no other food's: hard and dry at room temperature, melting and creamy in the warmth of the mouth. It can be sculpted into almost any shape, and its surface can be made as glossy as gla.s.s. And chocolate is one of the few examples of a food whose full potential was first revealed in industrial manufacturing. The chocolate that we know and love, a dense, smooth, sweet solid, has existed for only a tiny fraction of chocolate's full history.

The History of Chocolate An Exotic Drink The story of chocolate begins in the New World with the cacao tree, which probably evolved in the river valleys of equatorial South America. The tree bears large, tough seed pods that also contain a sweet, moist pulp, and early peoples may have carried the pods into Central America and southern Mexico as a portable source of energy and moisture. It appears that the first people to cultivate the tree were the Olmecs of the southern Gulf coast of Mexico. They in turn introduced it sometime before 600 The story of chocolate begins in the New World with the cacao tree, which probably evolved in the river valleys of equatorial South America. The tree bears large, tough seed pods that also contain a sweet, moist pulp, and early peoples may have carried the pods into Central America and southern Mexico as a portable source of energy and moisture. It appears that the first people to cultivate the tree were the Olmecs of the southern Gulf coast of Mexico. They in turn introduced it sometime before 600 BCE BCE to the Maya, who produced it in the tropical Yucatan peninsula and Central America, and traded it to the Aztecs in the cool and arid north. The Aztecs roasted and ground cacao seeds and made them into a drink that was served in religious ceremonies and a.s.sociated with human blood. The seeds were valuable enough to serve as a form of currency. The first Europeans to see the cacao bean were probably the crew of Columbus's fourth voyage in 1502, who brought some back to Spain. In 1519 one of Cortez's lieutenants, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, saw the Aztec emperor Montezuma at table and in pa.s.sing described the prepared drink: to the Maya, who produced it in the tropical Yucatan peninsula and Central America, and traded it to the Aztecs in the cool and arid north. The Aztecs roasted and ground cacao seeds and made them into a drink that was served in religious ceremonies and a.s.sociated with human blood. The seeds were valuable enough to serve as a form of currency. The first Europeans to see the cacao bean were probably the crew of Columbus's fourth voyage in 1502, who brought some back to Spain. In 1519 one of Cortez's lieutenants, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, saw the Aztec emperor Montezuma at table and in pa.s.sing described the prepared drink: Fruit of all the kinds that the country produced were laid before him; he ate very little, but from time to time a liquor prepared from cocoa, and of an aphrodisiac nature, as we were told, was presented to him in golden cups.... I observed a number of jars, above fifty, brought in, filled with foaming chocolate, of which he took some....

One of the first detailed accounts of the original chocolate comes from the History of the New World History of the New World (1564) by the Milanese Girolamo Benzoni, who traveled in Central America. He remarked that the region had made two unique contributions to the world: Indian fowls," or turkeys, and "cavacate," or the cacao bean. (1564) by the Milanese Girolamo Benzoni, who traveled in Central America. He remarked that the region had made two unique contributions to the world: Indian fowls," or turkeys, and "cavacate," or the cacao bean.

Food Words: Cocoa, Chocolate Cocoa, ChocolateThe word cocoa cocoa comes via the Spanish comes via the Spanish cacao, cacao, which in turn came via the Maya and Aztec from a probable Olmec word which in turn came via the Maya and Aztec from a probable Olmec word kakawa kakawa coined 3,000 years ago. coined 3,000 years ago. Chocolate Chocolate has a more complicated history. The Aztec (Nahuatl) word for cocoa-water was has a more complicated history. The Aztec (Nahuatl) word for cocoa-water was cacahuatl, cacahuatl, but the early Spanish coined but the early Spanish coined chocolate chocolate for themselves. According to historians Michael and Sophie Coe, they may have done so to distinguish the hot Maya version that they preferred from the cold Aztec one - in the Yucatan, "hot" was for themselves. According to historians Michael and Sophie Coe, they may have done so to distinguish the hot Maya version that they preferred from the cold Aztec one - in the Yucatan, "hot" was chocol chocol; the Aztec for "water" atl. atl.They pick out the kernels and lay them on the mats to dry; then when they wish for the beverage, they roast them in an earthen pan over the fire, and grind them with the stones which they use for preparing bread. Finally, they put the paste into cups...and mixing it gradually with water, sometimes adding a little of their spice, they drink it, though it seems more suited for pigs than men....The flavor is somewhat bitter, but it satisfies and refreshes the body without intoxicating: the Indians esteem it above everything, wherever they are accustomed to it.

Benzoni and other visitors reported that the Maya and Aztecs flavored their chocolate drinks with a number of different ingredients, including aromatic flowers, vanilla, chilli, wild honey, and achiote (p. 423). The Europeans then began to add their own flavorings, among them sugar, cinnamon, cloves, anise, almonds, hazel-nuts, vanilla, orange-flower water, and musk. According to the English Jesuit Thomas Gage, they dried the cocoa beans and spices, ground them up and mixed them together, and heated them to melt the cocoa b.u.t.ter and form a paste. Then they sc.r.a.ped the paste onto a large leaf or piece of paper, allowed it to solidify, and then peeled it off as a large tablet. According to Gage, there were several ways of preparing chocolate, both hot and cold.

The one most used in Mexico is to take it hot with atole atole [a maize gruel], dissolving a tablet in hot water, and then stirring and beating it in the cup with a molinet, and when it is well stirred to a sc.u.m or froth, then to fill the cup with hot [a maize gruel], dissolving a tablet in hot water, and then stirring and beating it in the cup with a molinet, and when it is well stirred to a sc.u.m or froth, then to fill the cup with hot atole, atole, and so drink it sup by sup. and so drink it sup by sup.

The first European "factories" for making the spiced chocolate paste were built in Spain around 1580, and within 70 years chocolate had fo