On Food And Cooking Part 46

Modern peach and nectarine varieties fall into a handful of categories. Their flesh may be white or yellow, and either firm or melting, strongly attached to the large central stone (clingstone) or easily detached (freestone). The genetically dominant characteristics are white, melting, freestone flesh. Yellow varieties were developed mainly after 1850, and firm clingstone varieties have been bred mainly for drying, canning, and improved tolerance of shipping and handling. The yellow coloration comes from a handful of carotenoid pigments, beta-carotene among them; rarer red varieties contain anthocyanins (as the skin often does). Peaches begin to ripen at the stem end and along the groove, or "suture," and are said to continue their flavor development even after harvest. The distinctively aromatic flavor of peaches and nectarines comes largely from compounds called lactones, which are also responsible for the aroma of coconut; some varieties also contain clove-like eugenol.

The most frequent problem with peaches is mealy flesh, apparently due to impaired pectin breakdown when the fruit has been temporarily stored in the cold, at temperatures below about 45F/8C. This is especially common in supermarket fruits.

Plum and Plum Hybrids Most plums are the fruits of two species of Most plums are the fruits of two species of Prunus. Prunus. A Eurasian species, A Eurasian species, P. domestica, P. domestica, gave rise to the European plums, which include French and Italian prune plums, the greengage and Reine Claude, the yellow-egg and imperatrice. The most common of these are the prune types, purplish-blue ovals with a meaty, semimelting, semifreestone flesh. The second, Asian species, gave rise to the European plums, which include French and Italian prune plums, the greengage and Reine Claude, the yellow-egg and imperatrice. The most common of these are the prune types, purplish-blue ovals with a meaty, semimelting, semifreestone flesh. The second, Asian species, P. salicina, P. salicina, originated in China, was improved in j.a.pan, and further bred by Luther Burbank and others in the United States after 1875. Varieties of the Asian species (Santa Rosa, elephant heart, and many others) tend to be larger, rounder, from yellow to red to purple, clingstone, and often melting. European plums are usually dried or made into preserves, Asian plums eaten fresh. Plums are climacteric fruit, so they can be harvested before ripening, stored at 32F/0C for up to 10 days, and then allowed to mature slowly at 55F/13C. Their aroma varies from kind to kind, but generally includes almondy benzaldehyde, flowery linalool, peachy lactones, and spicy methyl cinnamate. originated in China, was improved in j.a.pan, and further bred by Luther Burbank and others in the United States after 1875. Varieties of the Asian species (Santa Rosa, elephant heart, and many others) tend to be larger, rounder, from yellow to red to purple, clingstone, and often melting. European plums are usually dried or made into preserves, Asian plums eaten fresh. Plums are climacteric fruit, so they can be harvested before ripening, stored at 32F/0C for up to 10 days, and then allowed to mature slowly at 55F/13C. Their aroma varies from kind to kind, but generally includes almondy benzaldehyde, flowery linalool, peachy lactones, and spicy methyl cinnamate.

Plum-apricot hybrids, known as pluots (more plum parentage) or plumcots (equal parentage), are generally sweeter than plums and more complex in aroma. There are also a number of minor plums, among them the English damson and sloe (P. insit.i.tia and and spinosa spinosa), the latter small, astringent fruits that are steeped to make sloe gin.

Prunes The firm-fleshed prune plums dry well in the sun or during 1824 hours in a dehydrator at around 175F/79C. They develop a rich flavor thanks to the concentration of sugars and acids - nearly 50% and 5% of their weight respectively - and to browning reactions that generate caramel and roasted notes as well as their color, a brown-black deep enough to be attractive rather than drab. This richness is the reason that prunes work well in many savory meat dishes. Prunes are such a concentrated source of antioxidant phenolic compounds (up to 150 mg per 100 gm) that they make an excellent natural flavor stabilizer: they prevent the development of warmed-over flavor in ground meats when included at the rate of just a few percent (1 tablespoon per pound). They're also rich in moisture-retaining fiber and sorbitol and so are used to replace fat in hamburgers and a variety of baked foods. (Dried cherries have many similar properties and uses.) Their well-known laxative action on the human digestive tract is not entirely understood but probably involves the sugar alcohol sorbitol (p. 662), which accounts for up to 15% of the weight of both prune and juice. We can't digest sorbitol, so it pa.s.ses into our intestines where it may have a number of stimulating effects. The firm-fleshed prune plums dry well in the sun or during 1824 hours in a dehydrator at around 175F/79C. They develop a rich flavor thanks to the concentration of sugars and acids - nearly 50% and 5% of their weight respectively - and to browning reactions that generate caramel and roasted notes as well as their color, a brown-black deep enough to be attractive rather than drab. This richness is the reason that prunes work well in many savory meat dishes. Prunes are such a concentrated source of antioxidant phenolic compounds (up to 150 mg per 100 gm) that they make an excellent natural flavor stabilizer: they prevent the development of warmed-over flavor in ground meats when included at the rate of just a few percent (1 tablespoon per pound). They're also rich in moisture-retaining fiber and sorbitol and so are used to replace fat in hamburgers and a variety of baked foods. (Dried cherries have many similar properties and uses.) Their well-known laxative action on the human digestive tract is not entirely understood but probably involves the sugar alcohol sorbitol (p. 662), which accounts for up to 15% of the weight of both prune and juice. We can't digest sorbitol, so it pa.s.ses into our intestines where it may have a number of stimulating effects.

Common berries. Blueberries (left) (left) are true berries, or single fruits derived from the plant's ovaries. Caneberries and strawberries are not true berries, but multiple fruits that develop from many ovaries set in the same flower receptacle. Each little segment of a raspberry or blackberry are true berries, or single fruits derived from the plant's ovaries. Caneberries and strawberries are not true berries, but multiple fruits that develop from many ovaries set in the same flower receptacle. Each little segment of a raspberry or blackberry (center) (center) is a complete stone fruit. The strawberry is a complete stone fruit. The strawberry (right) (right) is a "false fruit": the small "seeds" borne on the surface of the swollen flower base are dry but entire fruits that correspond to the caneberry segments. is a "false fruit": the small "seeds" borne on the surface of the swollen flower base are dry but entire fruits that correspond to the caneberry segments.

Berries, Including Grapes and Kiwi Fruit Though the term berry berry has a precise botanical definition, in common usage it generally refers to small fruits borne on bushes and low plants, not trees. Most of our familiar berries are natives of northern woodlands. has a precise botanical definition, in common usage it generally refers to small fruits borne on bushes and low plants, not trees. Most of our familiar berries are natives of northern woodlands.

Caneberries: Blackberries, Raspberries, and Relatives Caneberries are fruits of the genus Caneberries are fruits of the genus Rubus, Rubus, which grows naturally across most of the temperate northern hemisphere in the form of long thin, th.o.r.n.y stalks, or canes. There are hundreds of species of blackberry native to both Europe and the Americas, but just a few species of raspberry. Serious caneberry cultivation probably began around 1500, and a number of blackberry-raspberry hybrids have been created, including boysenberry, loganberry, youngberry, and tayberry from American species, the Bedford giant from European species. Less familiar caneberries include cloudberries, a yellow-orange Scandinavian fruit, and dark red, intensely aromatic Arctic bramble fruits. which grows naturally across most of the temperate northern hemisphere in the form of long thin, th.o.r.n.y stalks, or canes. There are hundreds of species of blackberry native to both Europe and the Americas, but just a few species of raspberry. Serious caneberry cultivation probably began around 1500, and a number of blackberry-raspberry hybrids have been created, including boysenberry, loganberry, youngberry, and tayberry from American species, the Bedford giant from European species. Less familiar caneberries include cloudberries, a yellow-orange Scandinavian fruit, and dark red, intensely aromatic Arctic bramble fruits.

Caneberries are composite fruits: a single flower has from 50 to 150 ovaries, and each ovary makes a separate small fruitlet, like a miniature plum with a stony seed. The fruitlets are nourished through contact with the flower base and held together by the entanglement of small hairs borne on their surface (the original inspiration for Velcro). When they ripen, blackberries separate from the cane at the bottom of the flower base, so the base comes with the fruit; raspberries instead separate from the base itself, and so have an inner cavity. Caneberries are climacteric fruit, and have one of the highest respiration rates of any fruit; thanks to this and their thin skin, they're extremely fragile and perishable.

Some Caneberry RelationshipsAll caneberries are members of the prolific genus Rubus, Rubus, a member of the rose family. a member of the rose family.

Raspberry, European

Rubus idaeus vulgatus Rubus idaeus vulgatus

Raspberry, American

R. idaeus strigosus R. idaeus strigosus

Raspberry, black (American)

R. occidentalis R. occidentalis

Blackberry, European

R. fruticosus R. fruticosus

Blackberry, American

R. ursinus, laciniatus, vitifolius, R. ursinus, laciniatus, vitifolius, etc. etc.

Dewberry, European

R. caesius R. caesius

Dewberry, American

R. flagellaris, trivialis R. flagellaris, trivialis

Boysenberry, loganberry, marionberry, olallieberry, youngberry

Various blackberry-raspberry crosses Various blackberry-raspberry crosses

Cloudberry

R. chamaemorus R. chamaemorus

Salmonberry

R. spectabilis R. spectabilis

Arctic bramble

R. arcticus R. arcticus

Raspberries have a distinctive flavor due to a compound dubbed the raspberry ketone, and also have a violet-like note (from carotenoid fragments called ionones). The flavor of wild berries has been found to be by far the most intense. Blackberries vary in their flavor, the European varieties relatively mild, the American more intense, with spicy aroma notes (from terpenes). Most caneberry colors are provided by anthocyanin pigments, whose sensitivity to pH can cause dark purple blackberries to turn red when frozen (p. 281). These fruits are a good source of phenolic antioxidants, at least one of which (ellagic acid) actually increases during jam making. When made into preserves, the numerous caneberry seeds (several thousand per quarter pound/100 gm) can sometimes absorb syrup, become translucent, and give the normally deep-colored jam a milky dullness.

Blueberry, Cranberry, and Relatives These berries are borne by several different species in the genus These berries are borne by several different species in the genus Vaccinium, Vaccinium, which ranges across northern Europe and North America. which ranges across northern Europe and North America.

Blueberry Blueberries are the small fruits of a bushy North American species of the genus Blueberries are the small fruits of a bushy North American species of the genus Vaccinium, Vaccinium, which ranges from the tropics to the arctic. which ranges from the tropics to the arctic. V. angustifolium V. angustifolium and and corymbosum corymbosum are weedy pioneers in burned fields, and their fruits were gathered from the wild until the 1920s, when the first selected "highbush" ( are weedy pioneers in burned fields, and their fruits were gathered from the wild until the 1920s, when the first selected "highbush" (corymbosum) plants were developed in New Jersey. The bilberry, V. myrtillus, V. myrtillus, is a European relative, and the rabbit-eye blueberry, is a European relative, and the rabbit-eye blueberry, V. ashei, V. ashei, a similar but less flavorful native of the southern United States. The huckleberry, various species of a similar but less flavorful native of the southern United States. The huckleberry, various species of Vaccinium, Vaccinium, has a few large hard seeds, while blueberries have many small ones. has a few large hard seeds, while blueberries have many small ones.

Blueberries have a distinctive, spicy aroma apparently due to several terpenes, and are rich in phenolic antioxidants and in anthocyanin pigments, especially in the skin. These small berries freeze well, and retain their shape and substance when baked. The pigments can turn odd shades of green if cooked with alkaline ingredients (for example, baking soda in m.u.f.fins).

Cranberry and Relatives Cranberries are fruits of the North American perennial vine Cranberries are fruits of the North American perennial vine Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vaccinium macrocarpon, which is native to low, swampy areas of northern states from New England to the Midwest. Cultivation and efforts at improvement began in the 19th century, and the familiar jelly-like cranberry sauce was born early in the 20th century when a large producer decided to process his damaged berries into a canned puree. which is native to low, swampy areas of northern states from New England to the Midwest. Cultivation and efforts at improvement began in the 19th century, and the familiar jelly-like cranberry sauce was born early in the 20th century when a large producer decided to process his damaged berries into a canned puree.

Cranberries can be harvested dry, with a comb-like machine, or wet, by flooding the bog. Dry-harvested berries keep better, for several months. Cranberries store well for a couple of reasons. One is their high acidity, exceeded only by lemons and limes, and the main obstacle to eating them straight. The other is their very high content of phenolic compounds (up to 200 milligrams per 100 grams), some of which are antimicrobial and probably protect the fruit in its damp habitat. Many of these phenolic materials are also useful to us, some as antioxidants and others as antimicrobials. One example is benzoic acid, now a common preservative in prepared foods. A particular pigment precursor in cranberries (also found in blueberries) prevents bacteria from adhering to various tissues in the human body, and so helps prevent urinary tract infections.

The spicy aroma of cranberries is created by a combination of terpenes and spicy phenolic derivatives (cinnamates, benzoates, vanillin, almondy benzaldehyde). Some of its phenolic compounds contribute a notable astringency. Cranberries are rich in pectin, which is why a barely cooked puree thickens immediately into a sauce; it's also why cranberries macerated in alcohol may cause the alcohol to gel.

Lingonberries or cowberries are the fruit of a European relative of the cranberry, V. vitis-idaea V. vitis-idaea; they have a distinctive, complex flavor. The European cranberry, V. oxycoccus, V. oxycoccus, has a stronger and more gra.s.sy, herbaceous flavor than the American species. has a stronger and more gra.s.sy, herbaceous flavor than the American species.

Currants and Gooseberries Currants and gooseberries are all species of the genus Currants and gooseberries are all species of the genus Ribes, Ribes, which is found in northern Europe and North America. These small berries don't appear to have been cultivated until around 1500. (Their cultivation in the United States has been r.e.t.a.r.ded by federal and state restrictions because they can harbor a disease that attacks white pines.) There are white and red currants, which is found in northern Europe and North America. These small berries don't appear to have been cultivated until around 1500. (Their cultivation in the United States has been r.e.t.a.r.ded by federal and state restrictions because they can harbor a disease that attacks white pines.) There are white and red currants, R. sativum R. sativum and and R. rubrum, R. rubrum, and hybrids between the two. The black currant and hybrids between the two. The black currant R. nigrum, R. nigrum, is higher in acid than the others, and has a distinctively intense aroma made up of many spicy terpenes, fruity esters, and a musky, "catty" sulfur compound that is also found in sauvignon blanc wines. Black currants are also notably rich in vitamin C and in antioxidant phenolic compounds - as much as 1% of their weight - about a third of which are anthocyanin pigments. Currants are mainly made into preserves, and the French make black currants into a liqueur, is higher in acid than the others, and has a distinctively intense aroma made up of many spicy terpenes, fruity esters, and a musky, "catty" sulfur compound that is also found in sauvignon blanc wines. Black currants are also notably rich in vitamin C and in antioxidant phenolic compounds - as much as 1% of their weight - about a third of which are anthocyanin pigments. Currants are mainly made into preserves, and the French make black currants into a liqueur, creme de ca.s.sis. creme de ca.s.sis.

The gooseberry, R. grossularia, R. grossularia, is larger than the currant, and is often picked unripe for cooking in tarts and sauces. The jostaberry is a black currantgooseberry cross. is larger than the currant, and is often picked unripe for cooking in tarts and sauces. The jostaberry is a black currantgooseberry cross.

Grapes Grapes are the berries of woody vines in the genus Grapes are the berries of woody vines in the genus Vitis. V. vinifera, Vitis. V. vinifera, the major source of wine and table grapes, is native to Eurasia (p. 772). There are also about 10 grape species native to temperate Asia, and 25 to North America, including the the major source of wine and table grapes, is native to Eurasia (p. 772). There are also about 10 grape species native to temperate Asia, and 25 to North America, including the V. labrusca V. labrusca that gives us Concord and Catawba grapes. About two-thirds of the world's grape production goes to make wine; of the rest, about two-thirds are eaten fresh and a third are made into raisins. There are many thousands of grape varieties. Most wine varieties originated in Europe, while varieties for eating fresh or making into raisins can often be traced back to western Asian parents. Wine grapes come in relatively small cl.u.s.ters and are acidic enough to help control the yeast fermentation; table grapes come in large cl.u.s.ters and are less tart; raisin varieties have a thin skin, high sugar content, and loose cl.u.s.ter structure to facilitate drying. The commonest table and raisin grape in the United States, the Thompson seedless or sultana, is a variant of an ancient Middle Eastern all-purpose variety, the Kishmish. Table grapes are quite diverse. They may be seedy or seedless, deep purple with anthocyanins or pale yellow; their sugar content may range from 14 to 25%, their acidity from 0.4 to 1.2%. They may have a fairly neutral, green aroma (Thompson seedless), or be flowery and citrusy from terpenes (muscat), or musky with anthranilate and other esters (Concord and other American varieties). Most commercial varieties today have been bred to be seedless, crisp, tart, and sweet, with a long storage life. Thompson seedless grapes picked in the cool of the morning and treated with antimicrobial sulfur dioxide can be held for as long as two months at 32F/0C. that gives us Concord and Catawba grapes. About two-thirds of the world's grape production goes to make wine; of the rest, about two-thirds are eaten fresh and a third are made into raisins. There are many thousands of grape varieties. Most wine varieties originated in Europe, while varieties for eating fresh or making into raisins can often be traced back to western Asian parents. Wine grapes come in relatively small cl.u.s.ters and are acidic enough to help control the yeast fermentation; table grapes come in large cl.u.s.ters and are less tart; raisin varieties have a thin skin, high sugar content, and loose cl.u.s.ter structure to facilitate drying. The commonest table and raisin grape in the United States, the Thompson seedless or sultana, is a variant of an ancient Middle Eastern all-purpose variety, the Kishmish. Table grapes are quite diverse. They may be seedy or seedless, deep purple with anthocyanins or pale yellow; their sugar content may range from 14 to 25%, their acidity from 0.4 to 1.2%. They may have a fairly neutral, green aroma (Thompson seedless), or be flowery and citrusy from terpenes (muscat), or musky with anthranilate and other esters (Concord and other American varieties). Most commercial varieties today have been bred to be seedless, crisp, tart, and sweet, with a long storage life. Thompson seedless grapes picked in the cool of the morning and treated with antimicrobial sulfur dioxide can be held for as long as two months at 32F/0C.

Raisins Grapes are easily preserved by sundrying to make raisins. In the United States this is usually done by laying the grapes on paper between rows in the vineyard for about three weeks. Raisins are naturally brown and have caramel flavor notes due to a combination of browning-enzyme oxidation of phenolic compounds and direct browning reactions between sugars and amino acids (pp. 269, 778). Both of these processes are accelerated by high temperatures, so a lighter color can be obtained by drying the grapes in the shade. Golden raisins are made by treating the grapes with antioxidant sulfur dioxide and drying them mechanically at controlled temperatures and humidities; the result is a much fruitier, lighter flavor. Zante "currants" are made from the small black Corinth grape, and are tarter than ordinary raisins thanks to their higher proportion of skin to pulp. Grapes are easily preserved by sundrying to make raisins. In the United States this is usually done by laying the grapes on paper between rows in the vineyard for about three weeks. Raisins are naturally brown and have caramel flavor notes due to a combination of browning-enzyme oxidation of phenolic compounds and direct browning reactions between sugars and amino acids (pp. 269, 778). Both of these processes are accelerated by high temperatures, so a lighter color can be obtained by drying the grapes in the shade. Golden raisins are made by treating the grapes with antioxidant sulfur dioxide and drying them mechanically at controlled temperatures and humidities; the result is a much fruitier, lighter flavor. Zante "currants" are made from the small black Corinth grape, and are tarter than ordinary raisins thanks to their higher proportion of skin to pulp.

Verjus and Saba Two ancient grape preparations make versatile ingredients in the kitchen. Fruits thinned six to eight weeks before the main harvest are crushed and filtered to produce Two ancient grape preparations make versatile ingredients in the kitchen. Fruits thinned six to eight weeks before the main harvest are crushed and filtered to produce verjus, verjus, a tart alternative to vinegar or lemon juice, slightly sweet, with a delicate green aroma. And ripe grapes are cooked down to a thick, sweet-tart, aromatic syrup (Roman a tart alternative to vinegar or lemon juice, slightly sweet, with a delicate green aroma. And ripe grapes are cooked down to a thick, sweet-tart, aromatic syrup (Roman sapa, sapa, Italian Italian saba saba or or mosto cotto, mosto cotto, Turkish Turkish pekmez, pekmez, Arab Arab dibs dibs). Like syrups from other fruit (pomegranates), grape syrup was an important sweetener in the times before cheap table sugar, but provides tartness and aroma as well as sweetness. It's thought that balsamic vinegar may have evolved from grape syrup that was kept long enough to ferment (p. 775).

Kiwi "Kiwi" fruit is the name that New Zealand producers came up with for the striking, tart berry of a Chinese vine, "Kiwi" fruit is the name that New Zealand producers came up with for the striking, tart berry of a Chinese vine, Actinidia deliciosa, Actinidia deliciosa, when they pioneered its international marketing in the 1970s. Several other species of when they pioneered its international marketing in the 1970s. Several other species of Actinidia Actinidia are now also cultivated, including the yellow-to-red-fleshed are now also cultivated, including the yellow-to-red-fleshed A. chinensis. A. chinensis. Kiwi fruit are unusual in appearance and ripening behavior. Their thin, hairy skin doesn't change color during ripening, and the translucent inner flesh is green with chlorophyll, with as many as 1,500 small black seeds embedded in a ring and connected to the core by white rays of vascular tissue. (There are also chlorophyll-free varieties with yellow, red, and purple flesh.) Cross-sectional slices of kiwi are thus very attractive. When harvested, kiwi fruits contain a large amount of starch. During months of storage at 32F/0C, the starch is slowly converted to sweet sugars. Then at room temperature they undergo a climacteric ripening that takes about 10 days. The flesh softens and the aroma becomes more p.r.o.nounced, with strongly fruity esters (benzoates, butanoates) coming to dominate more delicate, gra.s.sy alcohols and aldehydes. Some kiwi varieties are rich in vitamin C and in carotenoids. Kiwi fruit are unusual in appearance and ripening behavior. Their thin, hairy skin doesn't change color during ripening, and the translucent inner flesh is green with chlorophyll, with as many as 1,500 small black seeds embedded in a ring and connected to the core by white rays of vascular tissue. (There are also chlorophyll-free varieties with yellow, red, and purple flesh.) Cross-sectional slices of kiwi are thus very attractive. When harvested, kiwi fruits contain a large amount of starch. During months of storage at 32F/0C, the starch is slowly converted to sweet sugars. Then at room temperature they undergo a climacteric ripening that takes about 10 days. The flesh softens and the aroma becomes more p.r.o.nounced, with strongly fruity esters (benzoates, butanoates) coming to dominate more delicate, gra.s.sy alcohols and aldehydes. Some kiwi varieties are rich in vitamin C and in carotenoids.

Kiwi fruits present a couple of challenges to the cook. They contain a strong protein-digesting enzyme, actinidin, which can damage other ingredients in a mixture and irritate sensitive skin. Heat inactivates enzymes, but it also muddies the fruit's delicate color and translucency. Kiwi fruits also contain crystals of calcium oxalate (p. 259), which pureeing, juicing, and drying can make more apparent and irritating in the mouth and throat.

Mulberry Mulberries are the surprisingly small, fragile, composite fruits of trees of the genus Mulberries are the surprisingly small, fragile, composite fruits of trees of the genus Morus. Morus. They resemble the blackberry, but each small fruitlet actually arises from a separate flower on a short flowering stalk. The white mulberry, They resemble the blackberry, but each small fruitlet actually arises from a separate flower on a short flowering stalk. The white mulberry, M. alba, M. alba, is native to China, where its leaves have long been used to feed silkworms. Its color ranges from white to purple, and it is relatively bland; often it's dried, which helps intensify its flavor. The Persian or black species, is native to China, where its leaves have long been used to feed silkworms. Its color ranges from white to purple, and it is relatively bland; often it's dried, which helps intensify its flavor. The Persian or black species, M. nigra, M. nigra, comes from west Asia; it's always a dark purple and is more flavorful. The North American red mulberry, comes from west Asia; it's always a dark purple and is more flavorful. The North American red mulberry, M. rubra, M. rubra, is mainly tart. Mulberries are used to make preserves, syrups, and sorbets. is mainly tart. Mulberries are used to make preserves, syrups, and sorbets.

Strawberry Strawberries come from small perennial plants of the genus Strawberries come from small perennial plants of the genus Fragaria, Fragaria, whose 20 species range across the northern hemisphere. The plants are easy to grow and therefore are grown widely, from sub-arctic Finland to tropical Ecuador. The strawberry is unusual in bearing its "seeds" on the surface of the fleshy portion, not inside. The "seeds" are actually miniature dry fruits (achenes), similar to buckwheat and sunflower "seeds," and the fleshy portion is the flower's swollen base, not its ovary. During ripening, the cells of the strawberry interior enlarge and pull apart from each other. The berry is therefore filled with tiny air pockets, and its shape is maintained by the pressure of the cell contents pushing each cell onto its neighbors. When this pressure is released, by water loss from drying out or from freezing that punctures the cell walls, the structure weakens and the fruit becomes soft and mushy. Strawberries don't improve once picked, so they must be picked ripe. Thanks to their thin skin and fragile structure, they only last a few days, even in cold storage. whose 20 species range across the northern hemisphere. The plants are easy to grow and therefore are grown widely, from sub-arctic Finland to tropical Ecuador. The strawberry is unusual in bearing its "seeds" on the surface of the fleshy portion, not inside. The "seeds" are actually miniature dry fruits (achenes), similar to buckwheat and sunflower "seeds," and the fleshy portion is the flower's swollen base, not its ovary. During ripening, the cells of the strawberry interior enlarge and pull apart from each other. The berry is therefore filled with tiny air pockets, and its shape is maintained by the pressure of the cell contents pushing each cell onto its neighbors. When this pressure is released, by water loss from drying out or from freezing that punctures the cell walls, the structure weakens and the fruit becomes soft and mushy. Strawberries don't improve once picked, so they must be picked ripe. Thanks to their thin skin and fragile structure, they only last a few days, even in cold storage.

The pineapple note in standard strawberries comes from the presence of ethyl esters. Some sulfur compounds and a complex caramel-like oxygen-containing ring, furaneol (also characteristic of pineapple), round out strawberry aroma. The smaller European woodland strawberries have a flavor of Concord grapes thanks to anthranilates, and a clove-like spicy note (from the phenolic eugenol). Strawberries are rich in as...o...b..c acid and in phenolic antioxidants, including its red anthocyanin pigments. They are poor in pectic materials, so strawberry preserves are often supplemented with prepared pectin or pectin-rich fruits.

The Domestication of the Strawberry Most of the strawberries grown today derive from two American species which were brought together and hybridized less than 300 years ago - and in Europe, not in the Americas! Most of the strawberries grown today derive from two American species which were brought together and hybridized less than 300 years ago - and in Europe, not in the Americas!

Europe had its own native strawberry (F. vesca and and F. moschata F. moschata), which is now called the "wild" strawberry or fraise de bois fraise de bois("woodland strawberry"), even though it's cultivated. This strawberry was mentioned in Roman literature, subsequently cultivated, and by the 15th century had a wonderful fragrance but was still small, pithy and unproductive. Early European visitors to North America were impressed by the size and vigor of an American species, F. virginiana, F. virginiana, and brought it back to Europe. Then a Frenchman by the stunningly appropriate name of Frezier found the walnutsized fruits of another New World species, and brought it back to Europe. Then a Frenchman by the stunningly appropriate name of Frezier found the walnutsized fruits of another New World species, F. chiloensis, F. chiloensis, growing in Chile, and took that species to France in 1712. Around 1750, in the strawberry-producing area around Plougastel in Britanny, an accidental hybrid between the two American species arose. Then across the Channel in England, a natural mutant of the Chilean species arose, large and pink, with a shape and aroma reminiscent of pineapple. Modern strawberry varieties, large and red and flavorful, derive from these two all-American ancestors. They have been given the scientific name growing in Chile, and took that species to France in 1712. Around 1750, in the strawberry-producing area around Plougastel in Britanny, an accidental hybrid between the two American species arose. Then across the Channel in England, a natural mutant of the Chilean species arose, large and pink, with a shape and aroma reminiscent of pineapple. Modern strawberry varieties, large and red and flavorful, derive from these two all-American ancestors. They have been given the scientific name F. x anana.s.sa F. x anana.s.sa to indicate their hybrid origins ( to indicate their hybrid origins (x) and distinctive pineapple aroma (anana.s.sa).

Elderberry and Barberry Elderberries and barberries are minor fruits worth rediscovering. Elderberries are pleasantly aromatic fruits borne by trees of the genus Elderberries and barberries are minor fruits worth rediscovering. Elderberries are pleasantly aromatic fruits borne by trees of the genus Sambucus, Sambucus, which are found across the northern hemisphere. They're usually cooked or made into wine because they are too tart to be enjoyed raw, and contain antinutritional lectins (p. 259) that require heating to be inactivated. Elderberries are rich in anthocyanin pigments and antioxidant phenolic compounds. So is the barberry, from shrubby species of the northern-hemisphere which are found across the northern hemisphere. They're usually cooked or made into wine because they are too tart to be enjoyed raw, and contain antinutritional lectins (p. 259) that require heating to be inactivated. Elderberries are rich in anthocyanin pigments and antioxidant phenolic compounds. So is the barberry, from shrubby species of the northern-hemisphere Berberis, Berberis, which is something like a miniature cranberry and dries well. Barberries are much used in Persian cooking, where they provide the tart rubies in a dish called jeweled rice. which is something like a miniature cranberry and dries well. Barberries are much used in Persian cooking, where they provide the tart rubies in a dish called jeweled rice.

Food Words: Berry, Strawberry Berry, StrawberryBerry comes from an Indo-European root meaning "to shine," perhaps for the bright colors of many small fruits. The comes from an Indo-European root meaning "to shine," perhaps for the bright colors of many small fruits. The straw straw in in strawberry strawberry comes from a root for "to spread, to strew." Straw is the dried stalks strewn about the field after the grain harvest; perhaps strawberries were named for the plant's habit of spreading by means of runners. A related cooking term is comes from a root for "to spread, to strew." Straw is the dried stalks strewn about the field after the grain harvest; perhaps strawberries were named for the plant's habit of spreading by means of runners. A related cooking term is streusel, streusel, an informally scattered topping on baked goods. an informally scattered topping on baked goods.

Other Temperate Fruits Ground Cherry This is one name for a couple of related fruits from low-lying plants in the nightshade family, close relatives of the tomatillo (p. 331). The Peruvian or Cape ground cherry or gooseberry, This is one name for a couple of related fruits from low-lying plants in the nightshade family, close relatives of the tomatillo (p. 331). The Peruvian or Cape ground cherry or gooseberry, Physalis peruviana, Physalis peruviana, came from South America, while the ordinary ground cherry, came from South America, while the ordinary ground cherry, P. p.u.b.escens, P. p.u.b.escens, is native to both North and South America. Both fruits resemble miniature, thick-skinned yellowish tomatoes, are enclosed in papery husks (thus another name, husk tomato), and keep well at room temperature. The Peruvian ground cherry has floral and caramel aroma notes in addition to generically fruity esters. These fruits are made into preserves and pies. is native to both North and South America. Both fruits resemble miniature, thick-skinned yellowish tomatoes, are enclosed in papery husks (thus another name, husk tomato), and keep well at room temperature. The Peruvian ground cherry has floral and caramel aroma notes in addition to generically fruity esters. These fruits are made into preserves and pies.

Persimmon Persimmons are fruits of trees in the genus Persimmons are fruits of trees in the genus Diospyros, Diospyros, which is native to both Asia and North America. There's a plum-sized native American persimmon, which is native to both Asia and North America. There's a plum-sized native American persimmon, D. virginiana, D. virginiana, and a Mexican species known as the black sapote ( and a Mexican species known as the black sapote (D. digyna), but the most important persimmon species worldwide is D. kaki, D. kaki, a tree with applesized fruits native to China and adopted by j.a.pan; it's sometimes said that persimmons are to the j.a.panese what apples are to Americans. j.a.panese persimmons are sweet, low-acid, mild fruits, with a few brown seeds surrounded by flesh that's bright orange from various carotenoid pigments, including beta-carotene and lycopene. They have a very mild aroma reminiscent of winter squash that probably derives from breakdown products of carotenoids. a tree with applesized fruits native to China and adopted by j.a.pan; it's sometimes said that persimmons are to the j.a.panese what apples are to Americans. j.a.panese persimmons are sweet, low-acid, mild fruits, with a few brown seeds surrounded by flesh that's bright orange from various carotenoid pigments, including beta-carotene and lycopene. They have a very mild aroma reminiscent of winter squash that probably derives from breakdown products of carotenoids.

j.a.panese persimmons come in two general kinds, astringent and nonastringent. Astringent varieties, including the tapered Hachiya, have such high levels of tannins that they're edible only when completely ripe, with translucent and almost liquid flesh. Nonastringent types, including the flat-bottomed Fuyu or Jiro, are not tannic, and can be eaten while underripe and crisp (they also don't get as soft as the astringent types). Centuries ago, the Chinese figured out a way to remove the astringency from unripe persimmons before they ripen. This method may be the first example of controlled-atmosphere storage! They simply buried the fruit in mud for several days. It turns out that when the fruits are deprived of oxygen, they shift their metabolism in a way that results in the acc.u.mulation of an alcohol derivative called acetaldehyde, and this substance binds with tannins in the cells, thus preempting them from binding to our tongues. Modern cooks can accomplish the same thing by wrapping persimmons snugly in a truly airtight plastic film, polyvinylidene chloride (saran).

Persimmons are commonly eaten raw, frozen whole into a natural sorbet, and made into pudding. Traditional American persimmon pudding owes its distinctive black-brown color to the combination of the fruit's glucose and fructose, flour and egg proteins, alkaline baking soda, and hours of cooking, which encourage extensive browning reactions (p. 778; replace the baking soda with neutral baking powder or shorten the cooking time and you get a light orange pudding). Persimmon flesh can be whipped into a long-lived foam thanks to its tannins, which help bind fragments of cell walls together to stabilize the air pockets. In j.a.pan, most Hachiya persimmons are dried, ma.s.saged every few days to even out the moisture and break down some of the fibrousness to a soft, doughy consistency.

Food Words: Rhubarb RhubarbRhubarb is a medieval Latin coinage, a combination of Greek is a medieval Latin coinage, a combination of Greek rha rha and and barbarum barbarum: "rhubarb" and "foreign." Rha Rha also meant the Volga River, so the plant may have been named after it: it came from foreign lands to the east of the Volga. also meant the Volga River, so the plant may have been named after it: it came from foreign lands to the east of the Volga.

Rhubarb Rhubarb is a vegetable that often masquerades as a fruit. It is the startlingly sour leaf stalks of a large herb, Rhubarb is a vegetable that often masquerades as a fruit. It is the startlingly sour leaf stalks of a large herb, Rheum rhabarbarum, Rheum rhabarbarum, that is native to temperate Eurasia and became popular in early 19th-century England as one of the first fruit-like produce items to appear in the early spring. The rhubarb root had long been used as a cathartic in Chinese medicine, and traded widely as a medicinal. The stalks were also used as a vegetable in Iran and Afghanistan (in stews, with spinach) and in Poland (with potatoes). By the 18th century the English were using them to make sweet pies and tarts. The 19th century brought better varieties and techniques for digging up mature roots and forcing rapid stalk growth in warm dark sheds, which produced sweeter, tenderer stalks. These improvements, cheaper sugar, and a growing supply resulted in a rhubarb boom, which peaked between the world wars. that is native to temperate Eurasia and became popular in early 19th-century England as one of the first fruit-like produce items to appear in the early spring. The rhubarb root had long been used as a cathartic in Chinese medicine, and traded widely as a medicinal. The stalks were also used as a vegetable in Iran and Afghanistan (in stews, with spinach) and in Poland (with potatoes). By the 18th century the English were using them to make sweet pies and tarts. The 19th century brought better varieties and techniques for digging up mature roots and forcing rapid stalk growth in warm dark sheds, which produced sweeter, tenderer stalks. These improvements, cheaper sugar, and a growing supply resulted in a rhubarb boom, which peaked between the world wars.

Rhubarb stalks may be red with anthocyanin pigments, green, or an intermediate shade, depending on the variety and production techniques. Their acidity is due to a number of organic acids, notably oxalic acid, which contributes about a tenth of the total acidity of 22.5%. (This is double or triple the oxalate content of spinach and beets.) Rhubarb leaves are said to be toxic in part due to their high oxalate content, as much as 1% of the leaf weight, but other chemicals are probably also responsible. Today rhubarb is available much of the year thanks to greenhouse production, though some cooks prefer the more intense flavor and color of the field-grown crop of late spring. The color of red stalks is best preserved by minimizing both the cooking time and the quant.i.ty of added liquid, which dilutes the pigments.

Fruits From Warm Climates: Melons, Citrus Fruits, Tropical Fruits, and Others Melons Except for the watermelon, melons are fruits of Cuc.u.mis melo, Cuc.u.mis melo, a close relative of the cuc.u.mber ( a close relative of the cuc.u.mber (C. sativus) and a native of the semiarid subtropics of Asia. The melon plant was domesticated in central Asia or India and arrived in the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 1st century CE CE, where their large size and rapid growth made them a common symbol of fertility, abundance, and luxury. There are many melon varieties with distinctive rinds, flesh colors (orange types are an excellent source of beta-carotene), textures, aromas, sizes, and keeping qualities.

Melons are generally used fresh, either sliced or pureed. They contain a protein-digesting enzyme, cuc.u.misin, and thus will prevent gelatin gels from setting unless the enzyme is denatured by cooking or an excess of gelatin is used. The melon surface can become contaminated with microbes in the field and cause food poisoning when the microbes are introduced into the flesh during cutting; it's now recommended that melons be thoroughly washed in hot soapy water before preparing them.

Food Words: Melon MelonIn Greek, melon melon meant "apple," but also other fruits containing seeds. The Greeks called our melon meant "apple," but also other fruits containing seeds. The Greeks called our melon melopepon, melopepon, or "apple-gourd," and this became shortened to or "apple-gourd," and this became shortened to melon. melon.

Melon Families and Qualities The most common Western melons fall into two families: The most common Western melons fall into two families: Summer melons are highly aromatic and perishable, and usually have rough rinds. They include true cantaloupes and muskmelons.

Winter melons are less aromatic and less perishable, and usually have smooth or wrinkled rinds. They include honeydews, casabas, and canaries.

The differences between the two melon families are caused by differences in their physiology. The aromatic summer melons are generally climacteric fruits that (with the exception of cantaloupes) separate from their stems when ripe; and they contain active enzymes that generate more than 200 different esters from amino acid precursors, and thus help create their characteristically rich aroma. The winter melons are generally nonclimacteric fruit like their relatives the cuc.u.mbers and squashes, and have low ester-enzyme activities and therefore a milder flavor.

Vine-ripening is important for all melons because they don't store starch and so get no sweeter after harvest. A remnant of the stem on an aromatic melon indicates that it was harvested before becoming fully ripe, while all winter melons (and true cantaloupes), even ripe ones, carry a piece of stem. The aroma of melons may continue to develop off the vine, but will not be the same as the aroma of vine-ripenedfruit. In addition to fruity esters, melons contain some of the same green, gra.s.sy compounds that give cuc.u.mbers their distinctive flavor, as well as sulfur compounds that provide a deeper, more savory dimension.

Some Melon VarietiesSummer Melons: very aromatic, keep one to two weeks very aromatic, keep one to two weeksCantaloupe: smooth or lightly netted, orange flesh, rich flavor (Charentais, Cavaillon) smooth or lightly netted, orange flesh, rich flavor (Charentais, Cavaillon)Muskmelon: deeply netted (most U.S. varieties, sometimes misnamed "cantaloupe") deeply netted (most U.S. varieties, sometimes misnamed "cantaloupe")Galia, Ha Ogen, Rocky Ford: green flesh, sweet and aromatic green flesh, sweet and aromaticAmbrosia, Sierra Gold: orange flesh orange fleshPersian: large, orange, mild large, orange, mildSharlyn/Ananas: translucent pale flesh translucent pale fleshPancha (charentais x muskmelon): netted and ribbed, orange, very aromatic netted and ribbed, orange, very aromaticWinter Melons: less aromatic, keep weeks to months less aromatic, keep weeks to monthsHoneydew: smooth rind, green or orange flesh, sweet, mild aroma (many varieties) smooth rind, green or orange flesh, sweet, mild aroma (many varieties)Casaba, Santa Claus: wrinkled or smooth rind, white flesh, less sweet or aromatic than honeydew wrinkled or smooth rind, white flesh, less sweet or aromatic than honeydewCanary: slightly wrinkled rind, white flesh, crisp, aromatic slightly wrinkled rind, white flesh, crisp, aromaticHybridsCrenshaw (Persian x casaba): green-yellow wrinkled rind, orange flesh, juicy, aromatic green-yellow wrinkled rind, orange flesh, juicy, aromatic Minor Melons In addition to the Western melons, there are several groups of Asian melons, including j.a.panese pickling or tea melons, many of them crisp-fleshed, and the In addition to the Western melons, there are several groups of Asian melons, including j.a.panese pickling or tea melons, many of them crisp-fleshed, and the flexuosus flexuosus group, long and twisted like a snake, which includes the "Armenian cuc.u.mber." There is also the group, long and twisted like a snake, which includes the "Armenian cuc.u.mber." There is also the dudaim dudaim group of small, especially musky melons used in the U.S. South and elsewhere for preserves and simply to scent the air (pocket melon, pomegranate melon, smell melon); group of small, especially musky melons used in the U.S. South and elsewhere for preserves and simply to scent the air (pocket melon, pomegranate melon, smell melon); dudaim dudaim is Hebrew for "love-plants." The horned melon, also called jelly melon and kiwano, is the fruit of is Hebrew for "love-plants." The horned melon, also called jelly melon and kiwano, is the fruit of Cuc.u.mis metuliferus, Cuc.u.mis metuliferus, a native of Africa with a spiky yellow skin and a relatively scant amount of emerald-green, translucent gel surrounding its seeds. The gel has a sweet cuc.u.mbery flavor and is used in drinks, fresh sauces, and sorbets. The hollowed-out skin makes a decorative container. a native of Africa with a spiky yellow skin and a relatively scant amount of emerald-green, translucent gel surrounding its seeds. The gel has a sweet cuc.u.mbery flavor and is used in drinks, fresh sauces, and sorbets. The hollowed-out skin makes a decorative container.

Watermelon The watermelon is a distant relative of the other melons, the fruit of an African vine, The watermelon is a distant relative of the other melons, the fruit of an African vine, Citrullus lanatus, Citrullus lanatus, whose wild relatives are very bitter. The Egyptians were eating it 5,000 years ago, and the Greeks knew it by the 4th century whose wild relatives are very bitter. The Egyptians were eating it 5,000 years ago, and the Greeks knew it by the 4th century BCE BCE. World production of watermelons is now double the production of all other melons combined. Watermelons are notable for the large size both of their cells, which are easily seen with the naked eye, and their fruits, which can reach 60 lb/30 kg and more. Unlike other melons, the watermelon consists of seed-bearing placental tissue rather than seed-surrounding - thus seed-free - ovary wall. "Seedless melons," which actually contain small undeveloped seeds, were first bred in j.a.pan in the 1930s. The cla.s.sic watermelon is dark red with the carotenoid pigment lycopene, and in fact is a much richer source of this antioxidant than tomatoes! Recent years have brought yellow-orange varieties. A good watermelon has a crunchy, crisp, yet tender consistency, a moderately sweet taste, and a delicate, almost green aroma. External signs of quality are a substantial heaviness for the melon's size, yellow skin under-tones indicative of chlorophyll loss and thus ripeness, and a solid resonance when thumped.

In addition to being eaten fresh, watermelon flesh is pickled and candied (often after a preliminary drying), and cooked down into a syrup or thick puree. The dense rind is often made into sour or sweet preserves. There is a subgroup of watermelons, C. lanatus citroides, C. lanatus citroides, known as citron or preserving melons, with inedible flesh but abundant rind for these preparations. Both melon and watermelon seeds are used in several regions, roasted or ground and infused to make beverages. known as citron or preserving melons, with inedible flesh but abundant rind for these preparations. Both melon and watermelon seeds are used in several regions, roasted or ground and infused to make beverages.

Fruits From Arid Climates: Fig, Date, and Others Cactus Pear "Cactus pear" is the modern marketing term for "p.r.i.c.kly pear" (Spanish "Cactus pear" is the modern marketing term for "p.r.i.c.kly pear" (Spanish tuna tuna), the fruit of the American cactus Opuntia ficus-indica. Opuntia ficus-indica. The species name comes from the early European idea that the dried fruit was an "Indian fig." The cactus arrived in the Old World in the 16th century and spread like a weed in the southern Mediterranean and Middle East. While both stem pads and fruits are eaten in the Americas, Europeans concentrated on the fruits, which ripen in the summer and fall and have a thick skin, green to red or purple, and many hard seeds embedded in a reddish, sometimes magenta flesh. The main pigment is not an anthocyanin but a beet-like betain (p. 268). The aroma is mild, reminiscent of melons thanks to similar alcohols and aldehydes. Like the pineapple and kiwi, cactus pears contain a protein-digesting enzyme that can affect gelatin gels unless it's inactivated by cooking. The pulp is removed and generally eaten fresh as juice or in salsas, or boiled down to a syrup or further to a pasty consistency. The paste is made into candies and cakes with flour and nuts. The species name comes from the early European idea that the dried fruit was an "Indian fig." The cactus arrived in the Old World in the 16th century and spread like a weed in the southern Mediterranean and Middle East. While both stem pads and fruits are eaten in the Americas, Europeans concentrated on the fruits, which ripen in the summer and fall and have a thick skin, green to red or purple, and many hard seeds embedded in a reddish, sometimes magenta flesh. The main pigment is not an anthocyanin but a beet-like betain (p. 268). The aroma is mild, reminiscent of melons thanks to similar alcohols and aldehydes. Like the pineapple and kiwi, cactus pears contain a protein-digesting enzyme that can affect gelatin gels unless it's inactivated by cooking. The pulp is removed and generally eaten fresh as juice or in salsas, or boiled down to a syrup or further to a pasty consistency. The paste is made into candies and cakes with flour and nuts.

Dates Dates are the sweet, easily dried fruits of a desert palm, Dates are the sweet, easily dried fruits of a desert palm, Phoenix dactylifera, Phoenix dactylifera, that can tolerate some cold and thrives as long as it has a source of water. Their original home was Middle Eastern and African oases, where they were being cultivated with artificial irrigation and pollination more than 5,000 years ago; they're now also grown in Asia and California. Though we usually see only two or three dried versions, there are thousands of different date varieties that differ in size, shape, color, flavor, and ripening schedule. that can tolerate some cold and thrives as long as it has a source of water. Their original home was Middle Eastern and African oases, where they were being cultivated with artificial irrigation and pollination more than 5,000 years ago; they're now also grown in Asia and California. Though we usually see only two or three dried versions, there are thousands of different date varieties that differ in size, shape, color, flavor, and ripening schedule.

Growers and aficionados distinguish four stages in date development: green and immature; mature but unripe, when they're yellow or red and hard, crunchy, and astringent; ripe (Arabic rhutab rhutab), when they're soft, golden brown, and delicate; and finally dried, when they're brown and wrinkled and powerfully sweet. Drying is usually done on the tree. Dates are moist and succulent when fresh, from 50 to 90% water, and chewy and concentrated when dry, with less than 20% moisture. Dry dates are 60 to 80% sugar, together with some texture-providing pectins and other cell-wall materials, and a few percent fatty materials, including the surface wax. They're ground into a coa.r.s.e powder to make "date sugar."

The drying process causes dates to develop a brown color and browned flavor thanks both to the action of browning enzymes on phenolic materials, and to the browning reactions between concentrated sugars and amino acids. Some varieties rich in phenolic materials, notably the Deglet Noor, can develop an increased astringency and red coloration when heated. Phenolic and other compounds give dates notable antioxidant and antimutagenic activities.

Fig Figs are the fruits of Figs are the fruits of Ficus carica, Ficus carica, a tree native to the Mediterranean and Middle East, and a relative of the mulberry. Because like the date they readily dry in the sun to a long-keeping, concentrated source of nourishment, they have been an important human food for many thousands of years. The fig is the fruit mentioned most often in the Bible, and was said to grow in the Garden of Eden. Spanish explorers brought it to the Americas via Mexico, and it now grows in many dry subtropical regions. There are many varieties, some green-skinned and some purple, some with bright red interiors. Ripe fresh figs are 80% water, very fragile and perishable. The vast bulk of the world crop is preserved by drying, a process that normally begins on the tree and then concludes on the orchard floor or in mechanical dryers. a tree native to the Mediterranean and Middle East, and a relative of the mulberry. Because like the date they readily dry in the sun to a long-keeping, concentrated source of nourishment, they have been an important human food for many thousands of years. The fig is the fruit mentioned most often in the Bible, and was said to grow in the Garden of Eden. Spanish explorers brought it to the Americas via Mexico, and it now grows in many dry subtropical regions. There are many varieties, some green-skinned and some purple, some with bright red interiors. Ripe fresh figs are 80% water, very fragile and perishable. The vast bulk of the world crop is preserved by drying, a process that normally begins on the tree and then concludes on the orchard floor or in mechanical dryers.

The fig is unusual in being more flower than fruit. The main body is a fleshy flower base folded in on itself, with an open pore opposite the stem, and inner female florets that develop into small, individual dry fruits that crunch like "seeds." The florets are pollinated by tiny wasps that enter through the pore. Many fig varieties will set fruit without pollination and produce "seeds" with no embryo inside, but fig experts say that fertilization and seed development seem to generate different flavors. (Wasps carry microbes into the fig interior, so fertilized fruits also suffer greater spoilage.) Smyrna figs and their descendants ("Calimyrna" is the California version) will not set fruit unless fertilized. They must be grown alongside a separate and inedible crop of "caprifigs," from which the wasps obtain fig pollen and lay their eggs.