Music: An Art and a Language Part 8

| | | | Saltarello | Italian | 6/8, 3/4 | Varied | With quick, jumping | | | | rhythm.

| | | | Rigaudon | French | 2/4, 4/4 | Varied | Lively, gay.

| | | | March | Found in | 4/4 | Varied | Stately, with marked | every nation | | | rhythm.

| | | | Csardas | Hungarian | 3/4, 2/4 | Varied | Impa.s.sioned; with great | | | | variety of effect.

| | | | Halling | Scandinavian | 2/4 | Varied | Fresh, vigorous, | | | | out-of-doors atmosphere.

| | | | Tango | Mexican | Varied | Varied | With reckless abandon.

| | | | Habanera | Spanish | 2/4 | Varied | Graceful; with | | | | characteristic rhythm.

| | | | Seguidilla | Spanish | 3/4, 3/8 | Varied | Fantastic; sometimes | | | | stately, sometimes gay | | | | and lively.

| | | | {Jota, | Spanish | 3/4 | Free | A kind of waltz, but with {often | | | | more freedom in the {Jota | | | | dancing, and of a vigorous {Aragonesa | | | | and fiery nature.

| | | | | | | | Malaguena | Spanish | 3/8 | In couplet | A dance of moderate | | | form | movement, accompanied by | | | | guitar and castanets; | | | | languorous and sensual in | | | | mood.

| | | | Siciliano | Sicilian | 6/8, | Two-part, | Graceful; of a Pastorale | | 12/8 | three-part,| nature.

| | | often a | | | | Rondo | ___________|______________|__________|____________|____________________________

The four indispensable movements of the cla.s.sic or 18th century Suite were the Allemande, the Courante, the Sarabande and the Gigue; and, between the last two, it became customary to insert an optional number of other dances--the most usual being the Gavotte, Bourree, Minuet and Pa.s.sepied. In effect, the Suite was a kind of "international Potpourri" of the dances most in vogue, and affords us a vivid reflection of the manners and customs of the period. Many of the English Suites begin with an elaborate polyphonic Prelude. We shall not give a detailed a.n.a.lysis of all these dance movements; for the main characteristics the tabulated list will suffice, and in the book of Supplementary examples (see No. 35) will be found the 6th French Suite complete. It will be more useful to center attention on those dances which, in rhythmic pattern, are especially typical and are most frequently employed in modern music; and we shall select, as examples drawn from various sources, those dances which make a direct appeal.

The most characteristic of the dances are the Sarabande, the Gavotte, the Minuet and the Gigue; and with the last, as exemplifying the same spirit, may be grouped the Rigaudon, Furiant, Tarantella and Saltarello.

The Sarabande is a slow, stately dance; always in triple meter indicated by 3/2 or 3/4. Its striking features are the frequent occurrence of the rhythmic pattern

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in which it is evident that there is a strong accent on the weak beats; and the prevalence of feminine endings in the cadences. The Sarabande always displays great depth of emotion--often of a tragic and impa.s.sioned kind; and, in the Suite, seems to have served the composer for the same outpouring of feeling which we a.s.sociate with the slow movement in the later Sonata or Symphony. The example cited in the Supplement (See No. 28)--taken from one of Bach's Sonatas for 'cello--is considered one of the most beautiful in existence. Other eloquent Sarabandes may be found in the Second and Third English Suites and in Handel's n.o.ble Air "Lascia ch'io pianga" from the opera of _Rinaldo_. Two fine modern examples of this dance are the second number in Paderewski's _Humoresques de Concert_, op. 14, and the second number in the set of pieces by Debussy, _Pour le Piano_--_Prelude_, _Sarabande_, _Toccata_. Composers sometimes employ the Sarabande rhythm for its inherent beauty, or for dramatic purposes without indication of the fact. Examples are the theme for variations in Beethoven's Sonata, op. 109, and the opening measures of the _Egmont Overture_ where, by means of the characteristic Spanish dance-rhythm, an atmosphere of oppression and dejection is established, _e.g._

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The Gavotte is an energetic yet dignified dance in duple rhythm (it is almost always played too fast)--the characteristics of which are its beginning on the half-measure and its strongly marked cadences. One of the most stirring examples is that cited from the Third English Suite (See Supplement No. 29) which, with its subdued middle portion, La Musette,[73] is an early example of tripart.i.te arrangement. Other gavottes[74] are the favorite one from the Fifth French Suite, that from Handel's opera _Ottone_ (so often played in organ or pianoforte transcriptions) and, from modern literature, the charming one in d'Albert's _Suite for Pianoforte_, op. 1.

[Footnote 73: So-called because it is written on a sustained ba.s.s note or pedal point; a feature of the Musette (the French name for Bagpipe) being its persistent drone ba.s.s on the tonic and the dominant.]

[Footnote 74: An interesting example may also be found in Grieg's _Holberg Suite for Pianoforte_.]

The Minuet is of particular interest, not alone because of the many beautiful examples of its use but because it is the only dance which, carried over from the Suite, has remained an integral movement of Symphonic compositions. The Minuet, in its older form, was a stately dance; the derivation of the term (French menu) referring to the dainty steps of the dancers, always in 3/8 or 3/4 metre and beginning on the first beat of the measure. By Haydn the character of the Minuet was considerably changed; the tempo becomes much faster, the music begins on the third beat of the measure instead of the first and the mood is one of playful humor--at times even of downright jollity. In the Minuets of Mozart the peculiar characteristics are grace and tenderness rather than rollicking fun, _e.g._, the charming examples in the E-flat major and G minor Symphonies. Concerning the transformation by Beethoven of the Minuet into the Scherzo, with its fantastic and freakish atmosphere, we shall speak more fully in connection with his Symphonies. Of the examples cited in the Supplement (see Nos. 30 and 31) the former, from the first Finale of Mozart's opera _Don Giovanni_, remains one of the most famous minuets in existence; and the two from Rameau's opera, _Castor and Pollux_, are of inimitable spontaneity and rhythmic grace. They are grouped in contrasting, tripart.i.te arrangement. In modern literature every one knows of the melodious example for Pianoforte by Paderewski (No. 1 of the _Humoresques de Concert_) and the _Menuet Italien_ by Mrs. Beach; that in the last scene of Verdi's _Falstaff_ is also well worth acquaintance.

The last of the particularly characteristic dances is the Gigue with its counterparts mentioned above. This is a rapid, animated dance in 6/8, 3/8, 12/8, 12/16 (sometimes 4/4) with marked rhythm; the term being derived from giga (German, geige)--an early name for fiddle--on account of the power of accent a.s.sociated with the violin family. The Gigue is always the closing number of Bach's Suites, in order to give a final impression of irrepressible vitality and gaiety, and is treated with considerable polyphonic complexity; in fact, his gigues often begin like a complete Fugue. They are all in clear-cut Two-part form; and it became the convention for the second part to treat the motive in _inverted_ form. The example cited from Bach's Fifth French Suite (see Supplement No. 32) is unsurpa.s.sed for rhythmic energy; the closing measures sound as if all the bells of heaven were ringing. The example of Mozart (see Supplement No. 33) is noteworthy for its daring use of the dissonant element and for its free modulations. Of the counterparts of the gigue the following are excellent examples: The Rigaudon--the Finale of Grieg's _Holberg Suite_, the vigorous one from Rameau's opera _Darda.n.u.s_, and MacDowell's independent piece in this form, op. 49, No. 2; the Furiant--the Finale of Dvo[vr]ak's _Suite for Small Orchestra_, op. 30 (accessible in an effective pianoforte arrangement for four hands); the _Tarantelle_--Chopin's independent piece in this rhythm, op. 43, and the brilliant Finale of Rheinberger's Pianoforte Sonata for four hands, op. 122; the Saltarello--the last movement of Mendelssohn's _Italian Symphony_ and the main portion of Berlioz's _Carnaval Romain Overture_. One additional example is cited (see Supplement No. 34), a Courante by D.

Scarlatti, to give an example of his pianoforte style. In connection with these dances, especially the Sarabande, Gavotte, Loure, Pavane, Polonaise and Tarantelle, there should be read the articles treating of each dance in Grove's Dictionary; for these dances are so closely connected with human activity that a knowledge of their development broadens our horizon in many matters pertaining to social life and civilization in general. As to specific examples of the less usual dances, many of the quaintest are found in the works of the early English composers: Byrd, Bull, etc., in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, _e.g._, _The Lord of Salisbury his Pavan_. An excellent example of the Loure is the well-known arrangement from Bach's third 'Cello sonata.

Chopin, in his works, has glorified both the Polonaise and the Mazurka; Bizet, in his opera Carmen, has used the Habanera and the Seguidilla, and there is a wonderful use of the Habanera rhythm in Debussy's descriptive piece _Soiree dans Grenade_. The French composer Ravel in his pianoforte piece _Pavane pour un enfant defunt_ has used with remarkable effect the stately rhythm of that dance. The Spanish composers, Albeniz and Granados, frequently employ national dance rhythms in their pieces. The French composer Chabrier's _Bourree Fantasque_ is a dazzling modernization of the old form; and his _Espana_ for full orchestra fairly intoxicates us with its dashing rhythms based upon the Jota and the Malaguena.[75] Debussy's well-known piece _Hommage a Rameau_ is in the style of the Sarabande.

The allusions in literature to these dances are so frequent that only a few can be cited. The very spirit of the Jig is given in Pope's line "Make the soul dance upon a jig to Heaven." In speaking of the antics of Sir Andrew Aguecheek in Twelfth Night, Shakespeare remarks--"I did think by the excellent const.i.tution of thy leg that it was formed under the star of a Galliard." One of the most remarkable works of the English composer John Dowland (born 1562) is ent.i.tled _Lachrymae, or Seven Teares, figured in seven pa.s.sionate Pavans_.

[Footnote 75: For a vivid description of these dances see Chabrier's _Lettres a Nanette_, Paris, 1910.]

The Suite, by reason of its freedom in combining different rhythms and moods, has appealed vividly to modern composers; and the literature of our times contains a number of Suites which should be known to the music-lover. In these modern Suites no attempt is made to conform to the old conventional grouping of dances. The movements are in different keys, are often based on rhythms of an exotic or ultra-nationalistic type--as in Tchaikowsky and Dvo[vr]ak, or may employ any material suggested by the fantastic imagination of the composer--as in Debussy and Ravel. Among the most attractive modern Suites may be cited: The _Peer Gynt_ (put together from incidental music to Ibsen's play) and the _Holberg_ by Grieg; the two _L'Arlesienne Suites_ by Bizet (written to ill.u.s.trate Daudet's romantic story)--the first, with its dainty Minuet and brilliant Carillons (Peal of bells); Dvo[vr]ak's _Suite for Small Orchestra_, op. 39, with its sprightly Polka and impa.s.sioned Furiant; Tchaikowsky's five Orchestral Suites of which the best known are the _Ca.s.se-Noisette_ with its exotic rhythms and novel orchestral effects, the _Mozartiana_ and the third which closes with a brilliant Polonaise; Brahms's _Serenades_ for orchestra; Charpentier's _Impressions of Italy_ in which there is an effective use of Italian rhythm and color; MacDowell's _Indian Suite_, with several of the themes based on native tunes; the fascinating orchestral Suite _Adventures in a Perambulator_ by John Alden Carpenter; Arthur Whiting's _Suite Moderne_ for pianoforte; _Stevensoniana_, (based on stanzas from Stevenson's _Child's Garden of Verses_) an orchestral Suite in four movements by Edward B. Hill; Debussy's _Suite Bergamasque_ in which is found the oft-played _Clair de Lune_; Ravel's[76] _Mother Goose_, a delightful work--and by the same composer the _Daphnis and Chloe_ Suite, the material drawn from an opera of the same name. In modern literature easily the most celebrated and brilliant example of this type is the _Scheherazade Suite_ (based on the Arabian Nights) for full orchestra by Rimsky-Korsakoff. This work in the genuine poetic quality of its themes, in its marvellous descriptive power and in the boldness of its orchestral effect remains unsurpa.s.sed.

[Footnote 76: See also _Le Tombeau de Couperin_ in which is a very novel Rigaudon.]

CHAPTER VII

THE OLDER RONDO FORM

One of the earliest instrumental forms to be worked out[77] was the Rondo, which is merely an extension of the _three-part_ principle of "restatement after contrast" and which, by reason of its logical appeal, has retained its place to this day. Originally the Rondo was a combination of dance and song; that is, the performers sang and danced in a circle--holding one another's hands. The music would begin with a chorus in which all joined, one of the dancers would then sing a solo, after which all would dance about and repeat the chorus; other solos would follow, the chorus being repeated after each. The characteristic feature, then, of this structure is the _continual recurrence_ to a princ.i.p.al motive after intervening contrasts--hence the name Rondo (French, Rondeau); exemplifying a principle found not only in primitive folk-songs and dances but in literature, _e.g._, many of the songs of Burns and the Rondeaux of Austin Dobson. For it is obvious that the form answers to the simplest requirements of unity and contrast. Frequent examples of the Rondo are found in all early instrumental composers: Bach, _e.g._, the charming one in C minor in his third Part.i.ta; Couperin, Rameau, Haydn and Mozart. It is found also in vocal works, _e.g._, Purcell's well-known song "I Attempt from Love's Sickness to Fly." From the standpoint of modern taste, however, Beethoven was--with few exceptions--the first to treat the form with real genius; and so our ill.u.s.trations are taken chiefly from his works and from those of his successors. Although there need be no arbitrary limit to the alternation of the chief part with the subsidiary portions--in fact, Beethoven's humorous _Rondo Capriccio, On a Lost Farthing_ has as many as _eleven_ sections--it gradually became conventional for the form to consist of _five parts_: a first presentation and two repet.i.tions of the main theme together with two contrasting portions called _Episodes_, to which a free Coda was often added. The form would then be A, b, A', c, A", Coda--A' and A"

indicating that the repet.i.tion need not be _literal_, but often varied rhythmically and harmonically; not, however, so as to obliterate the original outline. For in a well-constructed Rondo the main theme must be one of such direct appeal that we _look forward_ to hearing it _again_; and the successive repet.i.tions must be so planned that we can easily enjoy this pleasure of reminiscence. It also became customary not to block off the sections with rigid cadences but often to insert modulatory pa.s.sages, thus securing a continuous flow of thought. This practise we see particularly in Beethoven and Schumann. The form which we are discussing is the so-called Older Rondo Form, clearly derived from the dance described above. Beginning[78] with Beethoven, however, we find numerous examples of a different kind of rondo treatment which developed in connection with the Sonata Form--to be explained later.

The Rondo-Sonata Form, as it is generally called, is in fact a hybrid type, with certain features derived from rondo structure and certain from the pure sonata form. The Finales to Beethoven's Sonatas, when ent.i.tled Rondos, are--with few exceptions--of this Rondo-Sonata type.

An excellent example, which should be well known, is the Finale of the Sonata Pathetique. Although there are many cases of _free_ treatment of the rondo principle, they are all based on one or the other of these two fundamental types. Schumann was extremely fond of this Older Rondo Form, as may be seen from his frequent practice of writing two Trios to the Scherzos of his Symphonies. A moment's thought will make clear that a Scherzo with two Trios and the customary repet.i.tions will conform exactly to the pattern given above, _i.e._, A, b, A', c, A"

Coda, _e.g._, Scherzo, First Trio = First Episode, First return, Second Trio = Second Episode, Final return and Coda--five portions in all, or six when there is a Coda. For convincing examples see the Scherzos of the First and Second Symphonies. Schumann's well-known _Arabesque_ for pianoforte, op. 18, is a beautiful, clear-cut example of the form; with an interpolated modulatory pa.s.sage between the first episode and first return, and a poetic Coda which has, for its closing measures, the chief motive in augmentation (already referred to on p.

45). To show Schumann's partiality for this form the student may be referred to Nos. 2 and 8 of the _Kreisleriana_ (op. 16) and to Nos. 1, 2 and 3 of the "Nachtstucke" (op. 23). The third of the _Romances_ (op. 28)--a remarkably free example in the grouping of the material and in the key-relationship--is cited in the Supplement (No. 37). An excellent example (readily accessible), popular by reason of its freedom of treatment, as well as for its inherent sparkle and dash, is the Finale of Weber's Sonata in C major, op. 24--the so-called _Moto Perpetuo_. The most famous example of this form in cla.s.sical literature is undoubtedly the Finale of Beethoven's _Waldstein Sonata_, op. 53, with its melodious and easily remembered first subject, _e.g._

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its two episodes in A minor and C minor (which afford most dramatic contrasts to the lyric quality of the main subject) and its glorious, long-extended Coda of about three pages.[79]

[Footnote 77: For a complete account of the historical development see the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary Vol. II and Hadow's _Sonata Form_, Chapter IX.]

[Footnote 78: There is an early example in the Rondo of Mozart's Sonata for Pianoforte in B-flat major.]

[Footnote 79: For a complete detailed a.n.a.lysis of the movement see Prout, _Applied Forms_, pp. 120-121.]

As stated above, the Older Rondo-Form has not become obsolete; indeed, by reason of its possibilities for emphasis and contrast it has commended itself to modern composers. Striking examples may be found in the Finale of Brahms's Pianoforte Sonata in F minor, in the Finale of Tchaikowsky's Fourth Symphony and, above all, in the Symphonic Poems of Strauss, _Don Juan_ and _Till Eulenspiegel_, in which the form is admirably adapted to the dramatic needs of these descriptive works. Additional examples, which can be readily procured, are the Slow Movement of the _Sonata Pathetique_, op. 13, Beethoven's well-known _Andante in F major_--remarkable for its brilliant Coda--and his Rondo, already cited, _On the Lost Farthing_. (See Supplement No. 38). Although there is a certain stiffness in this form these examples afford the student excellent rudimentary practise in ease of listening.

CHAPTER VIII

THE VARIATION FORM

Monotony, as previously suggested, is more unendurable in music than in any of the other arts. We should therefore expect to find musicians inventing new devices to vary their thoughts so that the interest of the hearer might be continually sustained and refreshed. Thus there gradually grew up the form known as the Varied Air--a term meaning the presentation of the same musical material under different aspects. As far back as we can trace the development of instrumental structure, there appears this instinct for varying a simple tune by embellishments of a rhythmical and melodic nature. Examples abound in the works of the early Italian masters, in the harpsichord pieces of the English composers Byrd and Bull[80] and in the music of Couperin and Rameau. But all these Variations, however interesting from a historical point[81] of view, are very labored and lack any real poetic growth. They are, moreover, often prolonged to an interminable length--one example, as late as Handel, consisting of an Air with sixty-two Variations; prolixity or "d.a.m.nable iteration" being as bad a blemish in music as in any of the other arts. In the early days of instrumental composition, about all that composers could do was "to put the theme through its paces." That is, there was no unfolding of the poetic possibilities of the melody. The successive variations were all in the same key; the harmonic basis was practically unchanged and the treatment consisted of dressing up the theme with stereotyped embellishment-figures and of systematic rhythmic animation--produced by the addition of more and more notes to each time unit. A standard ill.u.s.tration of this type of Variations is the so-called _Harmonious Blacksmith_ of Handel from his _Suite in E Major_. This piece owes whatever popularity it may have preserved to the st.u.r.dy swing of the main theme and to the fact that it makes no demand on the attention of the most untrained listener. In fairness we should state that on the harpsichord--with its contrasting stops and key-boards--for which the piece was composed, there is possible more variety of effect than on the modern pianoforte.

[Footnote 80: We would cite the piece ent.i.tled _Les Buffons_ by Bull, and Byrd's variations to the popular tune the _Carman's Whistle_, which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction; for Byrd was a real genius. These are readily accessible in popular editions.]

[Footnote 81: Consult the comprehensive article on Variations in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V.]

Three collateral early forms deserve a pa.s.sing mention because, notwithstanding a certain rigidity of structure, they have been used by the great masters for the expression of sublime thoughts. These are the Ground Ba.s.s (or, as it is sometimes called, the Ba.s.so Ostinato), the Chaconne and the Pa.s.sacaglia[82] which, in modern literature, is well represented by the magnificent "tour de force" that serves as the Finale to Brahms's _Fourth Symphony_. By a Ground Ba.s.s is meant a theme, continually repeated, in the lowest voice, each time with varied upper parts. An excellent example (see Supplement No. 39) is the Aria "When I am laid in earth" from Purcell's Opera _Dido and Aeneas_. It is evident that the persistent iteration of a striking phrase in the ba.s.s gives an effect of dramatic intensity, as may be seen in the sublime "Crucifixion" of Bach's _Ma.s.s in B minor_.[83]

The Chaconne and Pa.s.sacaglia are old dance forms (examples of the former being found in Gluck's Ballet Music) and are closely related to the Ground Ba.s.s; since, in the majority of cases, we find the same procedure in the announcement of the theme and in its subsequent treatment. Two examples of the Chaconne from standard literature are the famous one of Bach in D minor for solo violin and Beethoven's thirty-two Variations in C minor for Pianoforte. The Pa.s.sacaglia is of importance as shown by the striking example for organ in C minor by Bach on the following theme:

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Whoever has heard this majestic theme, which seems to bear the sorrows of the world on its shoulders, announced on the deep-sounding pedals will gain a lasting impression of the grandeur of Bach's style.

[Footnote 82: For the derivation of the term consult the interesting article in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. IV.]

[Footnote 83: A work before which Schumann said every musician should prostrate himself in adoration.]

By the time of Haydn, the technical skill of composers had improved sufficiently so that we find in his works some genuinely interesting examples of the Variation form, _e.g._, the set on the well-known Austrian hymn from the _Kaiser Quartet in C major_--in which each of the five variations has a real individuality--and the _Variations in F minor for Pianoforte_: remarkable as an early example of the varied treatment of _two_ themes.

Most of Mozart's Variations are based upon popular themes and, in general, may be considered as virtuoso pieces to show off the agility of the performer. We find occasional examples, as in the Clarinet Quintette and in the Sonata in D major, which are of more intrinsic worth.