Moral Theology Part 68

(c) Violation of a fast or abstinence in itself is opposed only to positive law; and, since fasting is more difficult than abstinence, one is more easily excused from the observance of the former than from that of the latter. Hence, if there is a doubt whether a customer has a right to receive the food or drink he asks for, a restaurant-keeper can decide more readily in the customer's favor if there is question of fast or abstinence than if there is question of intemperance, and more readily still if there is question of fast than if there is question of abstinence. Generally speaking, a restaurant-keeper may supply meat on Friday to all who ask it, provided he has other substantial food indicated on his bill of fare and shows himself willing to serve that as well as meat.

1540. Renting of Houses or Rooms and coperation in Sin.--(a) He who rents to persons who wish to carry on disorderly, immoral, idolatrous, unlawful, or other sinful occupations or practices, is guilty of formal or unlawful material coperation, if he approves of the conduct of the renters or has no sufficient reason for renting to them. The same is true if in a similar way one permits persons bent on evil (e.g., pickpockets) to lounge in one's offices, hotels, etc.

(b) He who gives the use of his house, room, hall, field, etc., to persons who will employ them for evil, is only a material and not a guilty coperator, if there is no prohibition of his act, and he has a sufficient reason for it.

1541. Examples of reasons sufficient for coperation in renting are as follows:

(a) A very grave reason.--In civitatibus in quibus majoris mali vitandi causa permissum est, licet locare domum meretricibus, dummodo non sequatur grave noc.u.mentum vicinis honestis vel major ansa peccandi ob domus situm, et adsit ratio proportionate gravis, utputa quod alii locatorii non adsint, dominus notabile d.a.m.num patiatur si domus non occupetur, et meretrices facile alium locatarium obtinere possint.

Hodie vero quum constet meretrices plerasque invite vitam turpem exercere (white slavery) et morbis pessimis morteque prmatura affligi, meretricium vero noc.u.mentum multigenum bono publico (the social evil) inferre, omnis vir probus abhorrebit a pretio locario ab administratoribus lupanarium oblato.

(b) A more grave reason.--Meetings whose purpose is contrary to the common good (e.g., anti-religious gatherings), even though permitted by civil law, should not be given the use of one's premises except in a rare case of the greatest necessity.

1542. Unlawful Coperation of Servants, Employees, and Workingmen.--(a) Coperation is formal if these intend the sin of their employer with which they coperate, or if the act of coperation is itself intrinsically evil. Thus, a bookkeeper does no wrong in merely keeping a record of receipts and expenses; but, if he notices many instances of great frauds and injustices done by his firm and keeps at his post in order that dishonesty may be covered up and continued, he becomes a formal coperator. But a bookkeeper who falsifies or destroys records in order that his business may be able to issue an incorrect statement of its financial condition is involved in its guilt, even though his motive is pity or loyalty. Other examples of formal coperation are those of a secretary who takes down dictation which contains blasphemous or obscene expressions, and of a taxi-driver who tells his pa.s.sengers how to get to gambling dens, or who helps a criminal to get away by driving him through dark streets.

(b) Coperation is material and unlawful, when the intention and the act itself are not evil, but when there is no sufficient reason for the coperation. Thus, the following proposition was condemned by Innocent XI in 1679 as scandalous and pernicious: "Famulus qui submissis humeris scienter adjuvat herum suum ascendere per fenestras ad stuprandam virginem, et multoties eidem subservit deferendo scalam, aperiendo januam, aut quid simile coperando, non peccat mortaliter, si id faciat metu notabilis detrimenti, puta ne a domino male tractetur, ne torvis oculis aspiciatur, ne domo expellatur" (Denzinger, n. 1201). Though the acts of coperation of the servant here mentioned are not intrinsically evil, the coperation is proximate and positive and habitual, and the wrong done so serious that only a most grave reason, such as fear of death, could justify the help given by the servant to his master.

1543. Lawful Coperation of Servants, Workingmen, or Employees.--(a) If coperation is remote and is not indispensable to the sin to be committed, the mere fact that one is employed by the princ.i.p.al cause will excuse; for the employee is not supposed to question the employer about the reasons of orders given, and he is not responsible for the intentions of the employer, but for the performance of what is a.s.signed to himself. Hence, the following kinds of coperation are held permissible for no other reason than that of service: carrying liquor or food to an employer who wishes to make himself drunk or to break the fast, buying and carrying to him papers which he should not read, giving him his hat and coat or getting his car ready as he starts out to attack an enemy, opening the door to a slanderer whom the mistress of the house wishes to employ. Also, a public taxi-driver may take his patrons to clubs or road-houses where they will become intoxicated, if he is in no way responsible for their intention and shows no approval of it, and they can go just as well without him.

(b) If coperation is proximate, the mere fact that one is employed is not sufficient as an excuse for coperation; there must be some other reason that is sufficiently weighty in view of the gravity of the sin and the other circ.u.mstances. Thus, to drive one's employer to the place where he is to receive stolen valuables is justifiable, if one is under threat of great bodily harm if one refuses. Item ob incommodum gravius evitandum permitt.i.tur famulo deferre litteras heri amatorias ad amasiam c.u.m qua illicitum commercium habet, tempus et loc.u.m conveniendi amasiae nuntiare, excubias agere dum simul adsint. But a servant who is called on habitually to coperate in these ways should secure another position, if possible.

1544. The principles given as to servants should be applied likewise to other persons who are subordinates, with due allowance made for the difference of circ.u.mstances.

(a) Thus, children, wives, pupils, etc., may be less excusable in coperation than servants, since the former may be in a better position to remonstrate against what is ordered. Hence, if the master of the house who sometimes goes on a spree orders a servant to bring him his demijohn, disobedience might be more difficult than if the same order was given the wife.

(b) Children, wives, pupils, etc., may be more excusable, since unlike the servants they may be unable to go elsewhere. Those who agree to work at places known as vicious resorts, or who let their employer understand that they will not see or hear many things, or who habitually perform services proximately related to sin (what is called "dirty work"), are guilty of formal coperation, at least when they can secure good employment elsewhere. Children, on the contrary, may be so dependent on a tyrannical father that they cannot refuse coperation without serious consequences to themselves.

1545. Duties of Confessors.--Instruction should be given to penitents who are guilty of sinful coperation. (a) The confessor should instruct ignorant penitents on the sinfulness of their coperation, when there is a duty of justice to do this, as when the penitents ask to be instructed; or when there is a duty of charity, as when the sinfulness of the coperation in question is known to many persons, or the penitents by reason of coperation are giving great scandal or are in serious danger. (b) The confessor should not instruct ignorant penitents on the sinfulness of their coperation--at least, not for a time--if they are in good faith and if graver evils would result from the instruction than from silence.

1546. Obligations to be Imposed on Penitents on Account of Sinful coperation.--(a) Some cases of coperation cause the culprit to fall under ecclesiastical penalties, for example, those who act as seconds or spectators at duels (Canon 2351). (b) Some cases entail a duty of reparation for scandal given, as when one has aided the diffusion of irreligious or obscene literature or whisperings among the people. (c) Some kinds of coperation include dangerous occasions of sin which one is bound to avoid, as when one works for a man who produces adulterated wares or gets money under false pretenses.

Art. 10: THE COMMANDMENTS OF CHARITY

(_Summa Theologica_, II-II, q. 44.)

1547. There is no commandment concerning charity in the Decalogue, but charity is implicitly contained in all the commandments of other virtues; for charity is the end of every commandment (I Tim., i. 5).

Thus, the commandments of the first table of the Law tend to the love of G.o.d; the commandments of the second table to the love of neighbor.

On account of its supreme importance, however, charity was made the object of special commandments in both the Old and the New Testament.

(a) In the Old Testament, at the second giving of the tables of the Law, it is declared: "Now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy G.o.d require of thee, but that thou fear the Lord thy G.o.d, and walk in his ways, and love him, and serve the Lord thy G.o.d, with all thy heart and with all thy soul?" (Deut., x. 12).

(b) In the New Testament, our Lord, being asked which is the great commandment in the law, replied: "Thou shalt love the Lord, thy G.o.d, with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy whole mind.

This is the greatest and the first commandment. And the second is like to this: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. On these two commandments dependeth the whole law and the prophets" (Matt, xxii.

37-40).

1548. Charity must come "from a pure heart, and a good conscience and faith unfeigned" (I Tim., i. 5), and these words may be used to indicate how all other commandments have charity for their purpose.

(a) "A pure heart" is had by the observance of the negative commandments of the natural law, which forbid evil, or of the commandments about the virtues regulative of the pa.s.sions; and it is a disposition preparatory for the love of G.o.d, since an impure heart will be taken up with evil or with earthly things, and so turned away from the goodness of G.o.d.

(b) "A good conscience" is had by the observance of the affirmative commandments of the natural law, or of the commandments regulative of actions; and it too tends to charity as its goal, for a bad conscience fills one with dread and horror of the justice of G.o.d.

(c) "Faith unfeigned" is had by the observance of the supernatural law, or of the commandments about worship of the true G.o.d; and it leads up to charity, for a feigned faith, or false worship, separates one from the truth of G.o.d.

1549. Though charity is but one virtue (see 1115), it has two acts: one about love of G.o.d, which is the end, and another about love of neighbor, which is a means to that end.

(a) If all understood that the end includes the means and the means supposes the end, there would be no necessity for two distinct commandments; for there is no love of G.o.d without love of neighbor (I John, iv. 20), and he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law (Rom., xiii. 8).

(b) But since many would not perceive that one of the commandments of charity contains the other, it was necessary to propose these commandments separately: "We have this command from G.o.d that he who loves G.o.d love also his brother" (I John, iv. 21).

1550. Charity extends to other objects than G.o.d and the neighbor, namely, to self and one's own body (see 1133 sqq.); it also has other acts than that of love, such as the acts of joy, peace, beneficence (see 1193 sqq.), and the suppression of uncharitable hatred, sloth, envy (see 1295 sqq.), etc. Nevertheless, on the two commandments of love of G.o.d and love of neighbor depend the whole law and the prophets (Matt., xxii. 40), and other commandments about charity are not necessary.

(a) Thus, the objects of love are either the end or the means to the end, and, as the two commandments of charity refer to both of these, they omit nothing that is to be loved. It was not necessary to make express command of love of self, for nature inclines to that sufficiently, and the duty of keeping love of self within bounds is provided for in the commandments that G.o.d be loved above all and the neighbor as oneself.

(b) The acts of charity distinct from love result from love, and the acts opposed to charity are virtually forbidden in the commandments of their opposites. Hence, there was no need of explicit precepts about the secondary acts of charity or of explicit prohibitions of the sins against charity. But for the sake of those who might not perceive that the minor functions of charity are commanded and acts of uncharitableness forbidden in the two great commandments, special and explicit laws were given which enjoin peace, joy, etc., and forbid hatred, envy, etc.

1551. The precepts of the secondary acts of charity are: (a) joy: "Rejoice in the Lord always" (Phillip., iv. 4); (b) peace: "Follow peace with all men" (Heb., xii. 14); and (c) beneficence: "While we have time, let us do good to all" (Gal., vi. 10).

1552. The prohibitions of uncharitableness are as follows: (a) against hatred: "Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart" (Lev, xix. IT); (b) against sloth: "Bow down thy shoulder and hear her (wisdom), and be not grieved with her bands" (Ecclus., vi. 26); (c) against envy: "Let us not be made desirous of vainglory, provoking one another, envying one another" (Gal., v. 26), (d) against discord: "Speak the same things and let there be no schisms among you" (I Cor., i. 10); and (e) against scandal: "Put not a stumbling-block or a scandal in your brother's way"

(Rom., xiv. 13).

1553. The Commandment of Love of G.o.d.--In the commandment of love of G.o.d two things are expressed: (a) the matter of the commandment is G.o.d, the object of love; (b) the manner of the commandment is that G.o.d be loved as the Last End, to whose love all other love is to be subordinated.

1554. There is a twofold manner or mode of performing a virtuous act:

(a) The intrinsic mode is that which comes from the nature of the virtue commanded. Thus, in the Fourth Commandment is included not only the substance of an act (viz., that honor be shown), but also the mode of the act (i.e., that such honor and so much honor be shown as is owed to a parent by his child). The intrinsic mode is always included in a commandment along with the substance of the act prescribed (cfr. 480 sqq.).

(b) The extrinsic mode is that which belongs to some virtue different from the one commanded. This mode is not included in a commandment.

Thus, if honor be shown to parents out of love of G.o.d, the mode of love of G.o.d is extrinsic to the commandment, for the commandment is concerned with the virtue of filial piety, and the mode of the act pertains to charity, which is a virtue distinct from filial piety.

1555. The intrinsic mode of performing an act of virtue is also twofold:

(a) The essential mode is that without which an act is not virtuous.

Thus, he who gives to his indigent parents according to his means and their needs fulfills the essential mode of the Fourth Commandment, for, if he gave them less than he could afford and they needed, his act would not come up to the requirements of the commandment.

(b) The ideal mode of the performance of virtue is that which adds to the virtue greater goodness and value, and which is intended by a lawgiver as the end, but not as the object of his command. Thus, he who gives to his indigent parents not only sufficiently, but also with a great willingness and cheerfulness, fulfills the Fourth Commandment with greater perfection than another who supports his parents with less alacrity.

1556. The mode of the love of G.o.d prescribed in the first and great commandment is that G.o.d be loved with the whole heart, etc. But "to love with the whole heart, etc.," can be understood in various senses.

(a) Thus, it may be understood to mean a love that is subjectively or intensively great, as when one loves G.o.d with much fervor and affection. This mode of love is ideal, since the measure of loving G.o.d is to love Him without measure, but it is not essential. The end of the commandment is that we love G.o.d ever more and more, and perform what is required with ever greater prompt.i.tude and gladness; but the commandment does not fix any certain degree of intensity, although it would be inordinate to choose to love G.o.d less intensely than we love creatures (see 1160).

(b) "To love with the whole heart" may be understood to mean a love that is objectively or appreciatively great, as when one esteems and loves G.o.d as the Supreme Good. This mode of love is essential, and hence without it the commandment is not observed. However much one loves G.o.d, if one does not love Him as the Supreme Good, one does not love Him aright, and does not practise the virtue of charity that is commanded.

1557. Love of G.o.d from the whole heart, objectively or appreciatively understood, is either actual or habitual.

(a) Actually, one loves G.o.d with one's whole heart when there is never any interruption or distraction to one's love, and one is continually engaged in an act of loving G.o.d above all else. This is the ideal mode of fulfilling the commandment of love, and it is also the end to which the commandment is intended to lead. But it is only in heaven, where G.o.d will be all in all (I Cor., xv. 28), that this ideal fulfillment will take place.