Moral Theology Part 109

(b) The obligation, other things being equal, is less than that produced by a vow, because the vow binds in virtue of fidelity to G.o.d, but the oath only in virtue of respect. The obligation of fidelity seems to be stronger, because unfaithfulness always contains disrespect, but not vice versa. Moreover, in the case of a vow not only the fulfillment of the promise, but the thing promised itself is sacred, which is not true in the case of an oath. An a.s.sertory oath, however, seems to be more binding than a vow, because it is a greater injury to G.o.d to make Him the witness for falsehood than to break a promise made to Him.

2261. Degree of the Obligation of a Valid Promissory Oath.--(a) The obligation is grave, from the nature of an oath, because the virtue of religion is preeminent among the moral virtues (see 2146). There is no doubt that mortal sin is committed when one gives a sworn promise and has no intention to fulfill it, for this is perjury (see 2250 b); and also when one unjustly refuses to live up to an important engagement made under oath, for this is irreligion and injustice in a serious matter. The remarks on grave matter in vows (2211) apply here, but, since the vow obliges more strictly, a somewhat greater amount is needed for serious matter in violation of an oath.

(b) The obligation may be light on account of the smallness of the matter involved. Even a vow, which is more binding than an oath, may be of venial obligation in this way (see 2211). A person who makes a promise under oath, fully intending to keep the promise, but who later changes his mind without sufficient reason, does not show disrespect to G.o.d, since when the oath was made he intended to abide by it, and does not seriously injure his neighbor, since, as we suppose, the matter of the oath is small. The sin, therefore, is one of inconstancy or levity, and, if there is disrespect, it is slight. Thus, if a person who had sworn to drink no more wine took a drop now and then, these transgressions would be only venial. Some authors, however, believe that every unfaithfulness to a promissory oath, no matter how small the subject-matter, is a grave sin, because perjury is committed by the breach of promise. This is commonly denied, because the meaning of a promissory oath is that G.o.d is called on to witness the truth of a present intention and the obligation (great or small) of a future performance.

2262. Cessation of Obligation of Promissory Oath.--The obligation of a promissory oath, like that of a vow (see 2226), ceases intrinsically or extrinsically.

(a) Intrinsically, an oath ceases when there is a substantial change in the matter (e.g., it is or has become impossible or unlawful, as in Herod's oath to Salome), when the princ.i.p.al reason for the oath has ceased (e.g., t.i.tus swore to give an alms to Semp.r.o.nius because the latter was poor, but before the alms was given Semp.r.o.nius became rich), or when the time or condition by which the oath was limited terminates the obligation.

(b) Extrinsically, an oath ceases by condonation (e.g., when the State or a private person to whom a sworn promise has been made yields the right and remits the obligation), by annulment (e.g., when a father nullifies the oath of his minor child), by dispensation (e.g., when the Church absolves from an oath taken under grave compulsion), by commutation (e.g., when the Church changes the matter of a sworn vow into something more suitable). Those who can annul, dispense or commute vows have the same power over oaths; but if the dispensation of an oath is detrimental to others who are unwilling to forego the promise, only the Apostolic See can dispense, and then on account of a necessary reason (see Canon 1320).

2263. Adjuration.--Adjuration is the invocation of the name of G.o.d used in a request or command to another person in order to move that person to do or omit something.

(a) It is an invocation, and in this respect it is like an oath, for both an oath and an adjuration call upon the name of G.o.d.

(b) It calls upon the name of G.o.d either explicitly (e.g., "I command you in the name of G.o.d") or implicitly (e.g., "I beseech you for the sake of the pa.s.sion of Christ"). If command or request is made in the name of a creature and without reference to G.o.d's attributes reflected in them, there is not, properly speaking, an adjuration, as when one implores a favor from another person in the name of a Patron Saint, or of one's country, parents, friendship, etc.

(c) It is used in a command or a request, and thus it differs from prayer, which cannot be made in the form of a command. But adjuration may be used in prayers to G.o.d Himself or to the Saints, as is done in obsecrations.

(d) Its purpose is to move another to an act or omission, and thus it is different from an oath. The end of an oath is to confirm one's words by the testimony of G.o.d; the end of an adjuration is to influence another to a certain course through an appeal to his respect, fear or love of G.o.d.

2264. The Species of Adjuration.--(a) Adjuration is solemn or simple (private). The solemn adjuration is made in the name of the Church by her ministers and in the ritual form prescribed by her, as in the exorcisms of Baptism. The simple adjuration is made by private persons and without ritual ceremony.

(b) Adjuration is imperative or deprecative. The imperative is given in the form of a command to inferiors or demons, as when St. Paul writes to the Thessalonians: "I charge you by the Lord that this epistle be read" (I Thess., v. 27). The deprecative is given in the form of a request made to G.o.d or to any creature not d.a.m.ned, as when St. Paul writes to the Romans: "I beseech you, brethren, by the love of G.o.d that you present your bodies a living sacrifice" (Rom., xii. 1).

2265. Qualities of Lawful Adjuration.--Adjuration is lawful and an act of the virtue of religion, since it professes reverence for the divine attributes in using them as the most efficacious motives of appeal.

But, like an oath, adjuration must be accompanied by qualities that make it lawful.

(a) Thus, there must be judgment, and hence those persons are guilty of sin who employ adjuration without necessity (e.g., those who constantly urge the love of G.o.d and other religious motives when asking for any favor), or without devotion (e.g., those who in anger are wont to command "for G.o.d's sake," etc.). The sin committed does not seem grave, since there is no great disrespect and the malice consists in taking G.o.d's name in vain, not in insult.

(b) There must be truth, and hence an adjuration is sinful when used for a lying cause, as when a well-to-do person pretends to be indigent and begs that alms be given him for the love of G.o.d. The sin committed does not seem grave, since the act to which the other person is invited is good, and the act of adjuration itself does not ask G.o.d to testify to the lie, but only uses His name without reason. If the deception is mortally sinful, however, some authorities think that the adjuration added to it is a grave sin against religion.

(c) There must be justice, and therefore an adjuration is sinful when used to obtain something unlawful, as when one demands in the name of G.o.d that another person tell a lie or commit murder. The adjuration is gravely irreverent to G.o.d if the thing sought (e.g., murder) is a mortal sin; it is lightly irreverent, according to the common opinion, if the thing sought (e.g., a harmless lie) is only a venial sin.

2266. Persons Who May Be Adjured.--G.o.d may be adjured, but only in a deprecative manner, as is done in the obsecrations, "through Jesus Christ," "through Thy Pa.s.sion and Death," etc. The purpose of adjurations addressed to G.o.d is not to change the divine decrees, but to obtain through His goodness what He intended from eternity that we should obtain by prayer. But the same form of adjuration cannot be used for all creatures.

(a) Thus, deprecative adjuration may be used in reference to those who are in some way one's superiors. Hence, we may pray the Angels and Saints to grant a prayer for the love of G.o.d, and a beggar may ask in Our Lord's name that a wealthy man give him an alms.

(b) Imperative adjuration may be used in addressing subjects or inferiors. Adjuration of demons must not be made in friendly words, nor with a view to obtaining services or knowledge from them, but in words of reproach and only as a means to end their nefarious activities.

(e) No kind of adjuration may be used in regard to irrational creatures, since they are without knowledge sufficient for receiving a command or a request. The adjurations of animals, the elements, inanimate objects, etc., that are contained in the Ritual, must be understood as deprecative adjurations addressed to G.o.d, or imperative adjurations addressed to evil spirits, that the creatures prayed over may be to our benefit and not to our hurt. Examples are the exorcisms of water, salt, mice, locusts, houses, or storms.

2267. The Use of Exorcisms.--(a) As to their effect, exorcisms are of two kinds, exorcisms in the strict sense (i.e., the expulsion of demons from possessed persons) and exorcisms in the wide sense (i.e., the diminution of demonic influence). Examples of the former are found in the Gospels, where Our Lord drives out many evil spirits from afflicted persons; examples of the latter are found in the exorcisms administered in Baptism and in the exorcisms of salt, water and other inanimate or irrational creatures.

(b) As to their manner, exorcisms are also of two kinds, the solemn and the private. The former are made in the name of the Church in the manner prescribed by the Ritual, and their administration is reserved to clerics who have a special and express permission from the Ordinary (Canon 1151, 1). The latter kind may be made even by members of the laity, and we read that certain Saints, like St. Anthony and St.

Catherine of Siena, had great power over evil spirits. It is recommended that priests frequently use private exorcisms, at least secretly, for persons who are vexed by temptations or scruples, and for which they may use the form: "In the name of Jesus Christ, unholy spirit, I command you to depart from this creature of G.o.d."

2268. The Effects of Adjurations.--(a) Adjurations addressed to one's fellow-men upon earth impose no obligation of religion upon the persons addressed. Hence, if a rich man turns a deaf ear to an appeal for charity made in the name of G.o.d, he violates charity but not religion; if a child disregards a command urged upon him for the love of G.o.d, he violates obedience but not religion.

(b) Adjurations addressed to demons are not of infallible efficacy, at least as to the entire effect intended, for power over the spirits of darkness is given only in such measure as is needed for the propagation of the Gospel. But we believe that an exorcism p.r.o.nounced lawfully by one who has the Order of Exorcist acts _ex opere operato_, at least to restrain the wickedness of the demons: "In My name they shall cast out demons" (Mark, xvi. 17).

2269. Praise of G.o.d.--Having discussed oaths and adjurations, in which honor is shown the name of G.o.d, and the immediate end of which is or may be some human advantage, we come now to the honor shown the name of G.o.d by praise in which the immediate end is some spiritual advantage.

Praise is defined as "the declaration of another's greatness with approval." The divine praises include the prayers of wonder, of honor, of thanksgiving; but they differ from prayer properly so called or pet.i.tion (see 2153).

2270. Internal and External Praise of G.o.d.--(a) Internal praise is expressed by the thoughts and affections of the soul. This is the most important part of praise, and without it external praise loses much of its value. Our Lord reproved the Pharisees for honoring G.o.d with their lips, while their hearts were far from Him (Matt., xv. 8), and St. Paul admonishes the Ephesians to sing and make melody to the Lord in their hearts (Ephes, v, 19).

(b) External praise is expressed in words ("I will bless the Lord at all times, His praise is always in my mouth," Psalm x.x.xiii. 1), or in song ("Admonishing one another in psalms, hymns and spiritual canticles, singing in grace in your hearts to G.o.d," Col., iii. 16), or by music ("Praise Him with sound of trumpet, with psaltery and harp, with timbrel and choir, with strings and organs, with high-sounding cymbals," Psalm cl).

2271. Excellence of Praise of G.o.d.--(a) Praise Is Due to G.o.d.--His essence and attributes are ineffable and above all praise (Ecclus., xliii. 33), and they must be honored by the superior acts of worship and reverence. But the effects of His goodness shown to us should be declared and glorified: "I will remember the tender mercies of the Lord, the praise of the Lord for all the things the Lord hath bestowed upon us" (Is., lxiii. 7).

(b) Praise of G.o.d Is Advantageous to Man.--Internal praise lifts the soul on high and prepares it to receive benefits from G.o.d, while external praise helps the mind to keep its attention fixed on G.o.d, excludes those things that are contrary to Him, and offers edification to others. St. Augustine narrates in his _Confessions_ how profoundly he was moved in spirit, even to tears, on hearing the hymns and canticles of the Church.

2272. Qualities that Should Be Present in the Divine Praises.--(a) Internally, there should be devotion. It is useful that those who perform or a.s.sist at the praises of G.o.d understand what is said, but it suffices for devotion that they know His greatness and goodness is being proclaimed. The intention should be to honor G.o.d, and hence there is no act of personal religion if in reciting or hearing G.o.d's praises one intends only ostentation or pleasure; attention should also be given to what is said, and hence St. Augustine says that it is a sin to think rather of the music than of the praise of G.o.d proclaimed by the music (see 2164 sqq.).

(b) Externally, the divine praises should be respectful to G.o.d and helpful to recollection and devotion. Hence, the law of the Church excludes from her services all that is of a disturbing, profane or sinful character, such as theatrical displays, musical instruments that distract the mind from religious thoughts, lascivious airs or those suggestive of the dance. The Code prescribes that impure music of every kind must be eliminated from churches (Canon 1264), and Pius X in his Motu Proprio of 1903 lays down the rule that there must be nothing in the services of the Church that is calculated to diminish piety, give reasonable scandal or disgust, or offend the decorum of sacred functions or the sacredness of the place (see also Instruction on Sacred Art [Holy Office, 30 June, 1952], AAS 44-542). The sin committed by misbehavior or levity during divine services depends on the seriousness of the disrespect shown to G.o.d or the scandal given the beholders.

2273. The Sins against Religion.--Inasmuch as religion is a moral virtue and therefore consists in the observance of a golden mean, the sins opposed to it are the extremes of excess or defect. (a) The sins of excess offend, not because they offer too much worship to G.o.d (a thing that is impossible), but because they exceed by giving worship where it is not due or in a manner that is not due (superst.i.tion). (b) The sins of defect offend by denying due religious reverence to G.o.d Himself (temptation of G.o.d, perjury) or to sacred things (sacrilege, simony).

2274. Superst.i.tion.--Superst.i.tion is false religion, or a vice that offers improper worship to the true G.o.d or divine worship to a false G.o.d. Improper worship of the true G.o.d is either false or superfluous.

(a) False worship is opposed to the truth of religion (e.g., Old Testament rites which signify that Christ is still to come), or of rites (e.g., Ma.s.s by a layman, Ma.s.s according to a form disapproved by the Church), or of facts (e.g., fict.i.tious revelations, ecstasies, mysticism, miracles, relies), or of morals (e.g., human sacrifice, praises of G.o.d to the accompaniment of lascivious words or music, etc.).

(b) Superfluous worship is offered when an external observance in no way serves the purposes of religion (viz., the glory of G.o.d, the elevation of the soul to Him, the repression of the pa.s.sions), or is opposed to law or common custom. The purposes of religion are not served by actions foolish in themselves (e.g., the repeated mumbling of meaningless sounds) or in their intent (e.g., undue emphasis given to minor details of a religious act, such as color of the candles on the altar, the stature of the celebrant, the hour or condition of the weather, etc., as if weighty consequences depended on them). The chain prayer is another example of a superst.i.tion that places all the virtue of an act of worship in some small external circ.u.mstance. The law and custom are not followed in such superst.i.tions as additional crosses, alleluias, credos, etc., made in violation of Ma.s.s rubrics, or a devotion consisting of fasts on Sundays, or new forms of piety that lack ecclesiastical approval. There is no superst.i.tion, however, in modes of worship approved by the Church (such as novenas, tridua, Gregorian Ma.s.ses, and the like), for the Church recognizes no devotion or ceremony unless it is true and useful as an expression of religion.

2275. The Sinfulness of Improper Worship of G.o.d.--(a) False worship is from its nature a grave sin; it is seriously insulting to G.o.d because it offers Him dishonor as honor, and it is also seriously harmful to man because it casts discredit by its falsity on the name of religion.

(b) Superfluous worship is from its nature a venial sin, since it contains no notable irreverence towards G.o.d and, being outlawed, does not reflect on religion. Accidentally, however, it may be a mortal sin, as when it is performed in such a way as to cause great scandal.

2276. Worship of False Deity.--Worship of a false deity is performed by offering a creature an act of homage due to G.o.d alone. Hence, there are three species of this superst.i.tion: (a) a creature is recognized as G.o.d, when it is offered a service (such as sacrifice) that testifies to supreme and infinite excellence (idolatry); (b) a creature is given the credit of divine knowledge, when instruction about hidden matters which only G.o.d could bestow is asked from it (divination), (c) a creature is treated as the supreme ruler, when a.s.sistance which only G.o.d can grant is sought from it (vain observance).

2277. Definition of Idolatry.--Idolatry is the supreme worship of _latria_ offered to a creature.

(a) It is supreme worship, and hence the inferior reverence of _hyperdulia, dulia_, or civil honor, offered respectively to the Blessed Mother, angels, saints, superiors, etc., is not idolatry. The external signs of worship that belong to G.o.d alone (such as sacrifice, temples, priesthood, altars, etc.), may never be used in the veneration of creatures; nor the signs that are common to G.o.d and creatures (such as genuflexions, prostrations, prayers, etc.), if the intention is to adore.

(b) Idolatry is offered, that is, by it an act of worship is intended or is at least performed in a serious manner. Hence, it would not be idolatry so to enact a pagan ceremony that the onlookers could understand that no religious rite was being performed (e.g., if it were done on the stage, or in a joking manner).

(c) Idolatry is offered to a creature, and hence the relative honor that is shown the images of the Trinity or of Christ on account of the persons represented by them is not idolatry. The creature to whom idolatry is shown is either a person (e.g., an Angel, the soul of a departed person, a living human being), or an irrational creature (e.g., the bull Apis, a sacred plant), or an inanimate substance (e.g., statues or pictures, the elements, the heavenly bodies), or a fict.i.tious being (e.g., Jupiter and the other G.o.ds of mythology).

2278. The Kinds of Idolatry.--(a) Idolatry is either internal or external. Internal idolatry has the intention to adore a creature, as when a Satanist offers sacrifice to demons. External idolatry performs an outward rite that signifies adoration of a creature, although there is no will to give adoration, as when a Christian out of fear of death reluctantly burns incense before an idol. (b) Internal idolatry is either perfect or imperfect. Perfect idolatry includes belief in a false G.o.d, as when an ignorant pagan prays to the sun and moon.

Imperfect idolatry is committed when, without belief in a false G.o.d, there is the will to offer it divine worship on account of hatred of G.o.d, wish to obtain favors from demons, or the like.

2279. The Sinfulness of Idolatry.--(a) Idolatry is a most grievous crime. It entails rebellion against the majesty of G.o.d, attack on the virtue of religion, unbelief or denial of faith, and scandal; and hence it is forbidden in the first commandment: "Thou shalt not have strange G.o.ds before Me. Thou shalt not adore them, nor serve them" (Exod., xx.

3 sqq.).

(b) Idolatry in itself and in its highest degree is the most grievous of sins, for it includes both hatred of G.o.d (since it would deprive Him of His unique excellence by giving His honors to creatures) and blasphemous unbelief (since the idolater publicly professes that G.o.d is not above all). Now, it was said above that unbelief, hatred of G.o.d and blasphemy are the most enormous of sins (see 820, 895, 1301, 1302), and so it follows that the worst form of idolatry is graver than other sins.

(c) Idolatry, by reason of the dispositions of the person who commits it, may be less grievous than other sins. Thus, it is worse to hate or deny G.o.d internally than to worship an idol externally only; it is worse to blaspheme with great hatred and contempt than to practise idolatry with less malice. Imperfection of the act, as in cases of ignorance or want of consent, makes the sin venial, or no formal sin at all.

2280. Comparison of Different Sins of Idolatry.--(a) Internal idolatry is worse than external idolatry, because the former, though not the latter, includes approval of the superst.i.tion committed. (b) Imperfect idolatry is worse than perfect idolatry, if both be considered precisely as idolatry, since the former proceeds from malice, and the latter from greater or less ignorance. (c) External idolatry is aggravated when its motive is more sinful or makes the act more voluntary (e.g., it is worse to pretend sacrifice to an idol if the motive is to ingratiate oneself with the idolaters or to spite the Christians, than if the motive is to escape death at the hands of the pagans).