Modern Machine-Shop Practice Part 148

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2170.]

The oil groove chisel, Figs. 2169 and 2170, should be wider at the cutting edge than at A for reasons already stated, and of less curvature than the bore of the bra.s.s or bearing it is to cut the oil groove in.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2171.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2172.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2173.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2174.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2175.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2176.]

The diamond point chisel, Figs. 2171 and 2172, may be made in two ways.

First, as in Figs. 2173 and 2174, for shallow holes, and as in Figs.

2171 and 2172 for deep ones. In shallow holes the chisel can be leaned over, as in Fig. 2176 at _y_, whereas in deep ones it must be held straight so that the chisel body may not meet the other side of the hole, slot, or keyway. The form shown in Fig. 2172 is the strongest, because its point is brought into line with the body of the steel, as shown by the line Q. The side chisel, Fig. 2175, for cutting out the sides of keyways or slots, should be bevelled from W to the cutting edge for the reasons already given, and straight from W to V, the line V W projecting slightly above or beyond the body U. An application of the cow mouth chisel is shown at L, and one of the side chisel is shown at Z in Fig. 2176. All these chisels are tempered to a blue color.

The chisel that is driven by hammer blows may be said to be to some extent a connecting link between the hammer and the cutting tool, the main difference being that the chisel moves to the work, while the work generally moves to the cutting tool. In many stone-dressing tools the chisel and hammer are combined, inasmuch as that the end of the hammer is chisel shaped; an example of this kind of tool being given in the pick that flour millers use to dress their grinding stones. On the other hand we may show the connection between the chisel and the cutting tool by the fact that the wood-worker uses the chisel by driving it with a mallet, and also by using it for a cutting tool for work driven in the lathe. Indeed, we may take one of these carpenter's chisels and fasten it to the revolving shaft of a wood-planing machine, and it becomes a planing knife; or we may put it into a carpenter's hand plane, and by pushing it to the work it becomes a plane blade. In each case it is simply a wedge whose end is made more or less acute so as to make it as sharp as possible, while still retaining strength enough to sever the material it is to operate upon.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2177.]

In whatever form we may apply this wedge, there are certain well-defined mechanical principles that govern its use. Thus when we employ it as a hand tool its direction of motion, under hammer blows, is governed by the inclination of the face which meets the strongest side of the work, while it is the weakest side of the material that moves the most to admit the wedge and therefore becomes the chip, cutting, or shaving. In Fig. 2177, for example, we have the carpenter's chisel operating at A and B to cut out a recess or mortise, and it is seen that so long as the face of the chisel that is next to the work is placed level with the straight surface of the work the depth of cut will be equal; or in other words, the line of motion of the chisel is that of the chisel face that lies against the work. At C and D is a chisel with, in the one instance, the straight, and in the other the bevelled face toward the work surface. In both cases the cut would gradually deepen because the lower surface of the chisel is not parallel to the face of the work.

If now we consider the extreme cutting edge of chisel or wedge-shaped tools it will readily occur that but for the metal behind this fine edge the shaving or cutting would come off in a straight ribbon, and that the bend or curl that the cutting a.s.sumes increases with the angle of the face of the wedge that meets the cutting, shaving, or chip.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2178.]

I may, for example, take a piece of lead, and with a penknife held as at A, Fig. 2178, cut off a curl bent to a large curve, but if I hold the same knife as at B it will cause the shaving to curl up more. Now it has taken some power to effect this extra bending or curling, and it is therefore desirable to avoid it as far as possible. For the purpose of distinction we may call that face of the chisel which meets the shaving the top face, and that which lies next to the main body of the work the bottom face. Now at whatever angle either face of the chisel may be to the other, and in whatever way we present the chisel to the work, the strength of the cutting edge depends upon the angle of the bottom face to the line of motion of the chisel, and this is a principle that applies to all tools embodying the wedge principle, whether they are moved by a machine or by hand.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2179.]

Thus, in Fig. 2179 we have placed the bottom face at an angle of 80 to the line of tool motion, which is denoted by the arrow, and we at once perceive its weakness. If the angle of the top face to the line of tool motion is determined upon, we may therefore obtain the strongest cutting edge in a hand-moved tool by causing the bottom angle to lie flat upon the work surface.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2180.]

But in tools driven by power, and therefore accurately guided in their line of motion, it is preferable to let the bottom face clear the work surface, save at the extreme cutting edge. The front face of the wedge or tool is that which mainly determines its keenness, as may be seen from Fig. 2180, in which we have the wedge or tool differently placed with relation to the work, that in position A obviously being the keenest and less liable to break from the strain of the cutting process.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2181.]

If we now turn our attention to that cla.s.s of chisel or wedge-shaped tools in which the cutting edge is not a straight line, but may be stepped or curved--as, for example, the carpenter's plane blade--we shall find that so long as the blade stands at a right angle to the surface it is operating upon, as in Fig. 2183 at B, the shape of surface it cuts will exactly correspond to the shape of its cutting edge; but so soon as the tool is inclined to its line of motion its cutting edge will, if curved, produce a different degree of curvature on the work.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2182.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2183.]

Suppose, for instance, that we have in the figure a piece of moulding M and a plane blade B, and the length of the cutting edge is denoted by A, Fig. 2182; now suppose that the blade is inclined to its line of motion (as in the case of carpenters' planes) and stands at C, Fig. 2183: we then find that the cutting edge must extend to the length or depth D, and it is plain that the depth of the curve on the moulding is less than the depth of the cutting edge that produces it; the radius E being less than of D, so that if we place the cutter C upright on the moulding it will appear as shown in Fig. 2181. If, therefore, we are required to make a blade that will produce a given depth of moulding when moved in a straight line and presented at a given angle to the work, we must find out what shape the blade must be to produce the given shape of moulding, which we may do as follows:

In Fig. 2184 let A be a section of the moulding, and if the blade or knife is to stand perpendicular, as shown at B, Fig. 2183, and if it is moved in a straight line in the direction of the length of the work, then its shape would necessarily be that shown at B, Fig. 2184, or merely the reverse of A. In the position mentioned it could be used only as a sweep applicable to some few uses, but not adapted to cutting. To become a cutting tool it must be inclined and stand at some angle of less than 90 to its line of motion.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2184.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2185.]

Thus in Fig. 2185 D B E represents the bottom of the moulding and line of motion of the cutter, and A B the cutter perpendicular to it, the highest point of the cutting edge, as _c_ of Fig. 2184, being at _c_, Fig. 2185. The height or thickness of the moulding cut would be the s.p.a.ce between the lines E B D and _e_ _c_ _f_, but the cutter a.s.suming the position B C at an angle of 30 from A B, the point _c_ is brought to _d_; consequently the highest line of the moulding would now be _g_ _d_ _h_, and its thickness less. This is further exhibited in Fig. 2186, where _a_ represents the original depth section of Fig. 2184 that would be formed by knife B of Fig. 2184 when standing perpendicular; and G shows the depth with the same knife when placed as B C, Fig. 2185, or at 30 inclination, and H shows the depth that would be cut with the same knife or cutter at 45. It is now evident that every change in the inclination of the same cutter would effect a change in the shape of moulding which it cuts, and to produce a given style of moulding the shape of the cutter must be decided by its inclination, or the angle at which it is used.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2186.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2187.]

The method of projecting a given section of moulding in order to exhibit the form that the curve of the opening should a.s.sume on the face of the knife, is shown in Fig. 2187. Upon a horizontal line A B C D draw a section of the required style of moulding, as shown at A E B. To the right of this draw a line, as F C, to meet the base line A B C D, and as F C represents the cutter, it must stand at the same angle that the proposed cutter is to have--in this particular example 30 from the perpendicular. From the highest point of the section A E B draw a horizontal line E G, meeting F C in G. From points G and C draw lines, as C J and G H, of any convenient length, at right angles to F C. At any distance from G H draw K L parallel to G H, and upon K L trace the section of moulding A E B, as K M L. Draw lines from the extreme edges K and L of K M L, as K N, L J, perpendicular to K L, cutting G H and meeting C J at N and J. E G being parallel to A B C D, G will be the point on the cutter where the top E of the moulding will come on the highest point of the cutting edge, and C G will be the entire length of cutting edge or height of opening measured on the face of the cutter F C. C J being drawn from the lowest point C of the cutter and G H being drawn from G, the highest cutting point, both lines at right angles to G C, then their distance from each other, as P O, must obviously represent the extreme height of opening in the cutter in its new position or front view, and K L, representing the width of moulding transferred to N J by the parallel lines K N and L J, will show the width of opening in the cutter. Having now the height and width, it only remains to project an indefinite number of points and trace the curve through them. Divide A B into a number of parts, and to avoid confusion mark the points of division thus obtained upon A B--1, 2, 3, 4, &c. Divide K L in an exactly similar manner and into the same number of parts, and mark the divisions I., II., III., IV., &c. Erect perpendiculars from points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., meeting the curve A E B, and from the points thus found on A E B draw horizontal lines to F C; from the termini of these horizontals on F C draw the remaining lines parallel to and between G H and C J.

From the divisions _i._, _ii._, _iii._, _iv._, &c., on K L, let drop the perpendiculars, cutting the other series of lines at right angles. A point of the curve will then be at the intersection of the line from 1 on A B, with line I on K L; another at the intersection of the line originating at 2 with that from II, and so on, and the proper curve is found by tracing from N through the intersections to P, and from P to J.

Then K N being one side of the cutter and L J the other, N P J is the curve that the opening or cutting edges must have to cut the profile A E B, with the cutter set at F C, or 30.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2188.]

The same method is shown in Fig. 2188, except that in this case, instead of dividing A B and K L, the divisions are made directly on the peripheries A 6 B and K VI. L by stepping round with the dividers. The cutter F C is shown in this case at an angle of 45, in order that the change in form which the curve a.s.sumes with the cutter at different angles may be clearly seen by comparing the curve N P J of Fig. 2187 with the same in Fig. 2188. The two figures are similar in other respects, and as the lettering is the same on each, the description of Fig. 2187 will apply equally to Fig. 2188.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2189.]

There remains one more case of cutters moving in right lines, and that is where, besides having an inclination backward, as at F C, Fig. 2187, making a vertical angle to the line of motion, they are placed at an angle across the guiding piece also, or "skewing," thus making an angle to the line of motion on a horizontal plane as well as on a vertical one. Thus, suppose an ordinary carpenter's plane to have the cutter or "iron" turned partly round and placed so that the cutting edge, instead of lying at a right angle across the body, crosses it at some other angle. Fig. 2189 represents an ordinary carpenter's plane with the blade so placed. Here the edge, or rather side, D B, of the blade inclines back at an angle, as A B D, which is 45 in this case, to the perpendicular line A B on the side of the plane. For convenience call A B D the vertical angle. The lower or cutting edge E B of the blade also crosses the bottom of the plane at an angle E B C--30 in this instance--to a line B C, crossing the bottom at right angles. Now, it is evident that this latter angle E B C will influence the form of the cutter, if, instead of being a flat plane, as represented for clearness in Fig. 2189, it had a cutting edge of curved outline for cutting mouldings or similar work. But in either case the angle that D B or one side of the blade makes to E B, or the cutting edge--that is, the angle D B E--must be found in order to cut off the blank for the cutter or knife at the right "slant."

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2190.]

The method given in Figs. 2187 and 2188 of determining the form of cutter to produce a moulding of given profile now undergoes a modification where there are two angles to be taken into consideration instead of one. As an example, suppose a cutter is required that is to be fixed in such a position in its carrier or block that the handle A B D, or "vertical angle," of Fig. 2189 is, say, 45, and the angle E B C, or "horizontal angle," of Fig. 2189 shall be 30. Required the angle at which the bottom of the blank for the cutter must be cut off; or the angle that the side D B and lower edge B E of Fig. 2189 would make to each other, measured on the face of the cutter, and required the outline of cutting edge to be traced on the face of cutter to cut the section of moulding A E B, Fig. 2190: draw a horizontal line, as A B C D, and erect a perpendicular, as C R. From C draw C F, making an angle to C R equal to the "vertical angle," or angle A B D, Fig. 2189, which is 45 in this case. Draw a profile of the required moulding, as A E B, with its back A B coincident to the horizontal line A B C D. Draw a horizontal line from the highest point of the profile, as E, to meet F C in G. Draw parallel lines C J and G H, from C and G respectively, of any convenient length and making right angles to F C. At right angles to G H and C J, and parallel to F C, draw K H J to represent one side or edge of the cutter, but the angle of the lower end or angle D B E of Fig. 2189 must now be determined; to do this, draw an indefinite horizontal line, A B C, Fig.

2191, and from any point, as B, drop a perpendicular B D; now, from B set off on A B C the distance C _b_ of Fig. 2190, obtaining point E, and from E extend a perpendicular above and below A B C, as F E H. From E on E F set off distance G _b_ of Fig. 2190, obtaining J on E F. From B draw a line, making the same angle to B D that the angle E B C is in Fig.

2189, or 30 in this case, and cutting E H in K. Set off distance E K from E on A C, obtaining L; draw L J. Now, on Fig. 2190, with centre at H, and radius L J of Fig. 2191, describe arc _w_ _x_, and from J as centre, on Fig. 2190, and B K of Fig. 2191 as radius, describe arc _y_ _z_. Through the intersection _v_ of arcs _y_ _z_ and _w_ _x_, J L M must be drawn, making the proper angle to the side J H K of the cutter; this angle is 69 in this case, as found by construction. From H draw H N parallel to J L, and from H draw H O at the same angle to H N that B K is to B D, Fig. 2191, or angle E B C, Fig. 2189. Place a duplicate of A E B, with its base coincident to H O and corner A at H, as H P R. From R draw R N at right angles to H R and cutting H N at N; through N draw S N L parallel to K H J. Then while K H J represents one edge of the cutter, S N L will be the other, and J L the cutting edge before the opening is cut out. Divide the curves E B and P R similarly, obtaining points 1, 2, 3, &c., and I., II., III., &c., respectively. From points 1, 2, 3, &c., lines are to be drawn parallel to E G, meeting G C, continued from G C parallel to G H, and meeting H J, and from H J parallel to H N, meeting N L. From points I., II., III., &c., lines are to be drawn perpendicular to H R, meeting H N and continued from H N, parallel to H J, to J L, thus intersecting the first series. Lines from points 1, 2, 3, &c., then determine the height of different points of the curve, and those from I., II., III., &c., their location laterally; hence, by tracing through the intersections of 1 with I., 2 with II., &c., the curve H T L is obtained. The two outside lines K H J and S N L may now represent the edges of a piece of steel of which the cutter is to be made, and H T L will be the contour of cutting edge that must be given it in order that when, fixed for use at the angles named, it will form the required moulding A E B.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2191.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2192.]

If the chisel, knife, or cutter revolves in a circle, instead of in a right or straight line, the problem is again different, and the shape of cutting edge necessary to produce a given shape of moulding is again altered. Let Fig. 2192, for example, represent the bar or head of a wood moulding machine, the bar or head revolving in the direction of the arrow, and the moulding being moved beneath it in a straight line endways as denoted by the arrow at N.

In order that the nut that holds the cutter to the head may clear the top of the moulding the highest cutting point of the cutter must not come nearer to the corner of the head than 1/4 inch. This is shown in the end view of a 2-1/2 inch cutter head in Fig. 2193, the circle B representing the path of revolution of the nut. In larger heads the nut will clear better.

Now we may consider that the cutter simply revolves about a circle whose diameter is the largest that can be described on the end of the square bar that drives it.

If, for instance, we look at the end of the bar as it is presented in Fig. 2195, we see that the circle just fills the square, and that if we cut off all four corners, leaving the bar round, as denoted by the circle, the chisel will revolve in the same path as before. Now suppose we place beneath the revolving chisel a piece of square timber, and raise this timber while holding it horizontally, as would be done by raising the work table. It will cut the work to the shape shown in the two views in the figure, enabling us to observe the important point that the only part of the work that the chisel has cut to its finished shape is that which lies on the line A A. This line pa.s.ses through the axis on which the bar and cutter revolve, and represents the line of motion of the work in feeding upward to the chisel.

If now we were to move the work endways upon the table, we should simply cause the moulding to be finished to shape as it pa.s.ses the line A; because all the cutting is done before and up to the time that the chisel edge reaches this line; or in other words, each part of the chisel edge begins to cut as soon as it meets the moulding, and ceases to cut as soon as it reaches this line. We may now draw this circle and put on it a chisel in two positions, one at the time its lowest cutting point is crossing the line A and the other at the time the highest point on its cutting edge is pa.s.sing the line, these positions being marked 1 and 2 in Fig. 2196; the depth of moulding to be cut being shown at S.

Now, since the chisel revolves on the centre of the circle, the path of motion on its highest cutting point C will be as shown by the circle B, and that of the lowest point or end E of its cutting edge will be that of the circle D, while the depth of moulding it will cut is the distance between C and E, measured along the line A A, this depth corresponding to depth shown at S.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2193.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2194.]