Meteorology Part 9

There is, however, a scientific interest about the splash of a drop. The phenomenon can be best seen indoors by letting a drop of ink fall upon the surface of pure water in a tumbler, which stands on white paper. It is an exquisitely regulated phenomenon, which very ideally ill.u.s.trates some of the fundamental properties of fluids.

When a drop of milk is let fall upon water coloured with aniline dye, the centre column of the splash is nearly cylindrical, and breaks up into drops before or during its subsequent descent into the liquid. As it disappears below the surface, the outward and downward flow causes a hollow to be again formed, up the sides of which a ring of milk is carried; while the remainder descends to be torn a second time into a beautiful vortex ring. This sh.e.l.l or dome is a characteristic of all splashes made by large drops falling from a considerable height, and is extremely pretty. Sometimes the dome closes permanently over the imprisoned air, and forms a large bubble floating upon the water. The most successful experiments, however, have been carried through by means of instantaneous photography, with the aid of a Leyden-jar spark, whose duration was less than the ten-millionth of a second. But the simple experiments, without the use of the apparatus, will while away a few hours on a rainy afternoon, when condemned to the penance of keeping within doors.

CHAPTER x.x.xI

THE METEOROLOGY OF BEN NEVIS

Several large and very important volumes of the Royal Society of Edinburgh are devoted to statistics connected with the meteorology of Ben Nevis.

Most of the abstracts have been arranged by Dr. Buchan; while Messrs.

Buchanan, Omond, and Rankine have taken a fair share of the work.

This Observatory, as Mr. Buchanan remarks, is unique, for it is established in the clouds; and the observations made in it furnish a record of the meteorology of the clouds. It is 4406 feet above the level of the sea; and as there is a corresponding Observatory at Fort William, at the base of the mountain, it is peculiarly well fitted for important observations and weather forecasting. The mountain, too, is on the west sea-coast of Scotland, exposed immediately to the winds from the Atlantic, catching them at first hand. It is lamentable to think that, when the importance of the observations made at the two Observatories was becoming world known, funds could not be got to carry them on. Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the British Islands, best fitted for meteorological observations; yet these have been stopped for want of money.

Dr. Buchan's valuable papers were published before any one dreamed of the stoppage of the work, which had such an important bearing on men engaged in business or taken up with open-air sport. From these I shall sift out a few facts that even "mute, inglorious" meteorologists may be interested in knowing.

For a considerable time the importance of the study of the changes of the weather has come gradually to be recognised, and an additional impetus was given to the prosecution of this branch of meteorology when it was seen that the subject had intimate relations to the practical question of weather forecasts, including storm warnings. Weather maps, showing the state of the weather over an extensive part of the surface of the globe, began to be constructed; but these were only indicators from places at the level of the sea.

The singular advantages of a high-level observatory occurred to Mr. Milne Home in 1877; and Ben Nevis was considered to be in every respect the most suitable in this country. The Meteorological Council of the Royal Society of London offered in 1880, unsolicited, 100 annually to the Scottish Meteorological Society, to aid in the support of an Observatory, the only stipulation being that the Council be supplied with copies of the observations.

From June to October, in 1881, Mr. Wragge made daily observations at the top of the Ben; and simultaneous observations were made, by Mrs. Wragge, at Fort William. A second series, on a much more extended scale, was made in the following summer.

Funds were secured to build an Observatory; and, in November 1883, the regular work commenced, consisting of hourly observations by night as well as by day. Until a short time ago, these were carried on uninterruptedly.

Telegraphic communications of each day's observations were sent to the morning newspapers; and now we are disappointed at not seeing them for comparison.

The whole of the observations of temperature and humidity were of necessity eye-observations. For self-registering thermometers were comparatively useless when the wind was sometimes blowing at the rate of 100 miles an hour. Saturation was so complete in the atmosphere that everything exposed to it was dripping wet. Every object exposed to the outside frosts of winter soon became thickly incrusted with ice.

Snowdrifts blocked up exposed instruments. Accordingly, the observers had to use their own eyes, often at great risks.

The instruments in the Ben Nevis Observatory, and in the Observing Station at Fort William, were of the best description. Both stations were in positions where the effects of solar and terrestrial radiation were minimised. No other pair of meteorological stations anywhere in the world are so favourably situated as these two stations, for supplying the necessary observations for investigating the vertical changes of the atmosphere. It is to be earnestly hoped, therefore, that funds will be secured to resume the valuable work.

The rate of the decrease of temperature with height there is 1 Fahr. for every 275 feet of ascent, on the mean of the year. The rate is most rapid in April and May, when it is 1 for each 247 feet; and least rapid in November and December, when it is 1 for 307 feet. This rate agrees closely with the results of the most carefully conducted balloon ascents.

The departures from the normal differences of temperature, but more especially the inversions of temperature, and the extraordinarily rapid rates of diminution with height, are intimately connected with the cyclones and anti-cyclones of North-Western Europe; and form data, as valuable as they are unique, in forecasting storms.

The most striking feature of the climate of Ben Nevis is the repeated occurrence of excessive droughts. For instance, in the summer and early autumn of 1885, low humidities and dew-points frequently occurred.

Corresponding notes were observed at sea-level. During nights when temperature falls through the effects of terrestrial radiation, those parts of the country suffer most from frosts over which very dry states of the air pa.s.s or rest; whereas, those districts, over which a more humid atmosphere hangs, will escape. On the night of August 31 of that year, the potato crop on Speyside was totally destroyed by the frost; whereas at Dalnaspidal, in the district immediately adjoining, potatoes were scarcely--if at all--blackened.

The mean annual pressure at Ben Nevis was 253 inches, and at Fort William 298, the difference being 4-1/2 inches for the 4400 feet.

For the whole year, the difference between the mean coldest hour, 5 A.M., and the warmest hour, 2 P.M., is 2. For the five months, from October to February, the mean daily range of temperature varied only from O6 to 15.

This is the time of the year when storms are most frequent; and this small range in the diurnal march of the temperature is an important feature in the climatology of Ben Nevis; for it presents, in nearly their simple form, the great changes of temperature accompanying storms and other weather changes, which it is so essential to know in forecasting weather.

The daily maximum velocity of the wind occurs during the night, the daily differences being greatest in summer and least in winter. A blazing sun in the summer daily pours its rays on the atmosphere, and a thick envelope of cloud has apparently but little influence on the effect of the sun's rays.

Thunder-storms are essentially autumn and winter phenomena, being rare in summer.

According to Mr. Buchanan, the weather on Ben Nevis is characterised by great prevalence of fog or mist. In continuously clear weather it practically never rains on the mountain at all. In continuously foggy weather, on the other hand, the average daily rainfall is 1 inch. There is a large and continuous excess of pressure in clear weather over that of foggy weather. The mean temperature of the year is 3-1/2 degrees higher in clear than in foggy weather. In June the excess is 10 degrees. The nocturnal heating in the winter is very clearly observed. This has been noticed before in balloons as well as on mountains. The fog and mist in winter are much denser than in summer. Whether wet or dry, the fog which characterises the climate of the mountain is nothing but _cloud_ under another name.

CHAPTER x.x.xII

THE WEATHER AND INFLUENZA

Some remarkable facts have been deduced by the late Dr. L. Gillespie, Medical Registrar, from the records of the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh.

He considered that it might lead to interesting results if the admissions into the medical wards were contrasted with the varying states of the atmosphere. The repeated attacks of influenza made him pay particular attention to the influence of the weather on that disease.

The meteorological facts taken comprise the weekly type of weather, _i.e._ cyclonic or anti-cyclonic, the extremes of temperature for the district for each week, and the mean weekly rainfall for the same district. More use is made of the extremes than of the mean, for rapid changes of temperature have a greater influence on disease than the actual mean.

The period which he took up comprises the seven years 1888-1895. There was a yearly average of admissions of 3938; so that he had a good field for observation. Six distinct epidemics of influenza, varying in intensity, occurred during that period; yet there had been only twenty-three attacks between 1510 and 1890. Accordingly, these six epidemics must have had a great influence on the incidence of disease in the same period, knowing the vigorous action of the poison on the respiratory, the circulatory, and the nervous systems. The epidemics of influenza recorded in this country have usually occurred during the winter months.

The first epidemic, which began on the 15th of December 1889 and continued for nine weeks, was preceded by six weeks of cyclonic weather, which was not, however, accompanied by a heavy rainfall. Throughout the course of the disease, the type continued to be almost exclusively cyclonic, with a heavy rainfall, a high temperature, and a great deficiency of sunshine.

The four weeks immediately following were also chiefly cyclonic, but with a smaller rainfall.

The summer epidemic of 1891 followed a fine winter and spring, during which anti-cyclonic conditions were largely prevalent. But the epidemic was immediately preceded by wet weather and a low barometer. It took place in dry weather, and was followed by wet, cyclonic weather in turn.

The great winter epidemic of 1891 followed an extremely wet and broken autumn. Simultaneously with the establishment of an anti-cyclone, with east wind, practically no rain, and a lowering temperature, the influenza commenced. Great extremes in the temperature followed, the advent of warmer weather and more equable days witnessing the disappearance of the disease.

The fourth epidemic was preceded by a wet period, ushered in by dry weather, accompanied by great heat; and its close occurred in slightly wetter weather, but under anti-cyclonic conditions. The fifth outbreak began after a short anti-cyclone had become established over our islands, continued during a long spell of cyclonic weather with a considerable rainfall, but was drowned out by heavy rains. The last appearance of the modern plague, of which Dr. Gillespie's paper treats, commenced after cold and wet weather, continued in very cold but drier weather, and subsided in warmth with a moderate rainfall.

The conditions of these six epidemics were very variable in some respects, and regular in others. The most constant condition was the decreased rainfall at the time, when the disease was becoming epidemic.

Anti-cyclonic weather prevailed at the time.

According to Dr. Gillespie, the tables seem to suggest that a type of weather, which is liable to cause catarrhs and other affections of the respiratory tract, precedes the attacks of influenza; but that the occurrence of influenza in _epidemic form_ does not appear to take place until another and drier type has been established. As the weather changes, the affected patients increase with a rush.

He is of opinion that the supposed rapid spread of influenza on the establishment of anti-cyclonic conditions may be explained in this way.

The air in the cyclonic vortex, drawn chiefly from the atmosphere over the ocean, is moist, and contains none of the contagion; the air of the anti-cyclone, derived from the higher strata, and thus from distant cyclones, descending, blows gently over the land to the nearest cyclone, and, being drier, is more able to carry suspended particles with it. He considers that temperature has nothing to do with the problem, except in so far as the different types of weather may modify it. The Infirmary records point to the occurrence of similar phenomena, recorded on previous occasions. Accordingly, if such meteorological conditions are not indispensable to the spread of influenza in epidemic form, they at least afford favourable facilities for it.

CHAPTER x.x.xIII

CLIMATE

One is not far up in years, in Scotland at any rate, without practically realising what climate means. He may not be able to put it in words, but easterly haars, chilling rimes, drizzling mists, dagging fogs, and soddening rains speak eloquently to him of the meaning of climate.

Climate is an expression for the conditions of a district with regard to temperature, and its influence on the health of animals and plants. The sun is the great source of heat, and when its rays are nearly perpendicular--as at the Tropics--the heat is greater on the earth than when the slanted rays are gradually cooled in their pa.s.sage. As one pa.s.ses to a higher level, he feels the air colder, until he reaches the fluctuating snow-line that marks perpetual snow.

The temperature of the atmosphere also depends upon the radiation from the earth. Heat is quite differently radiated from a long stretch of sand, a dense forest, and a wide breadth of water. Strange is it that a newly ploughed field absorbs and radiates more heat than an open lea. The equable temperature of the sea-water has an influence on coast towns. The Gulf Stream, from the Gulf of Mexico, heats the ocean on to the west coast of Britain, and mellows the climate there.

The rainfall of a district has a telling effect on the climate. Boggy land produces a deleterious climate, if not malaria. Over the world, generally, the prevailing winds are grand regulators of the climate in the distinctive districts. A wooded valley--like the greatest in Britain, Strathmore--has a health-invigorating power: what a calamity it is, then, that so many extensive woods, destroyed by the awful hurricane twelve years ago, are not replanted!

Some people can stand with impunity any climate; their "leather lungs"