Island Life Part 6

Now it is quite certain that such a condition as we have here sketched out would produce a wonderful effect on the climate of Central Europe and Western and Northern Asia. Owing to the warm currents being concentrated in inland seas instead of being dispersed over a wide ocean like the {83} North Atlantic, much more heat would be conveyed into the Arctic Ocean, and this would altogether prevent the formation of ice on the northern sh.o.r.es of Asia, which continent did not then extend nearly so far north and was probably deeply inter-penetrated by the sea. This open ocean to the north, and the warm currents along all the northern lands, would so equalise temperature, that even the northern parts of Europe might then have enjoyed a climate fully equal to that of the warmer parts of New Zealand at the present day, and might have well supported the luxuriant vegetation of the Miocene period, even without any help from similar changes in the western hemisphere.[23]

_Condition of North America during the Tertiary Period._--But changes of a somewhat similar character have also taken place in America and the Pacific. An enormous area west of the Mississippi, extending over much of the Rocky Mountains, consists of marine Cretaceous beds 10,000 feet thick, indicating great and long-continued subsidence, and an insular condition of Western America with a sea probably extending northwards to the Arctic Ocean. As marine Tertiary deposits are found conformably overlying these Cretaceous strata, Professor Dana is of opinion that the great elevation of this part of America did not begin till early Tertiary times. Other Tertiary beds in California, Alaska, Kamschatka, the Mackenzie River, the Parry Islands, and Greenland, indicate partial submergence {84} of all these lands with the possible influx of warm water from the Pacific; and the considerable elevation of some of the Miocene beds in Greenland and Spitzbergen renders it probable that these countries were then much less elevated, in which case only their higher summits would be covered with perpetual snow, and no glaciers would descend to the sea.

In the Pacific there was probably an elevation of land counterbalancing, to some extent, the great depression of so much of the northern continents.

Our map in Chapter XV. shows the islands that would be produced by an elevation of the great shoals under a thousand fathoms deep, and it is seen that these all trend in a south-east and north-west direction, and would thus facilitate the production of definite currents impelled by the south-east trades towards the north-west Pacific, where they would gain access to the polar seas through Behring's Straits, which were, perhaps, sometimes both wider and deeper than at present.

_Effect of these Changes on the Climate of the Arctic Regions._--These various changes of sea and land, all tending towards a transference of heat from the equator to the north temperate zone, were not improbably still further augmented by the existence of a great inland South American sea occupying what are now the extensive valleys of the Amazon and Orinoco, and forming an additional reservoir of super-heated water to add to the supply poured into the North Atlantic.

It is not of course supposed that all the modifications here indicated co-existed at the same time. We have good reason to believe, from the known distribution of animals in the Tertiary period, that land-communications have at times existed between Europe or Asia and North America, either by way of Behring's Straits, or by Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador. But the same evidence shows that these land-communications were the exception rather than the rule, and that they occurred only at long intervals and for short periods, so as at no time to bring about anything like a complete interchange of the productions of the two continents.[24] We may therefore admit that the {85} communication between the tropical and Arctic oceans was occasionally interrupted in one or other direction; but if we look at a globe instead of a Mercator's chart of the world, we shall see that the disproportion between the extent of the polar and tropical seas is so enormous that a single wide opening, with an adequate impulse to carry in a considerable stream of warm water, would be amply sufficient for the complete abolition of polar snow and ice, when aided by the absence of any great areas of high land within the polar circle, such high land being, as we have seen, essential to the production of perpetual snow even at the present time.

Those who wish to understand the effect of oceanic currents in conveying heat to the north temperate and polar regions, should study the papers of Dr. Croll already referred to. But the same thing is equally well shown by the facts of the actual distribution of heat due to the Gulf Stream. The difference between the mean annual temperatures of the opposite coasts of Europe and America is well known and has been already quoted, but the difference of their mean _winter_ temperature is still more striking, and it is this which concerns us as more especially affecting the distribution of vegetable and animal life. Our mean winter temperature in the west of England is the same as that of the Southern United States, as well as that of Shanghai in China, both about twenty degrees of lat.i.tude further south; and as we go northward the difference increases, so that the winter climate of Nova Scotia in Lat. 45 is found within the Arctic circle on the coast of Norway; and if the latter country did not consist almost wholly of precipitous snow-clad mountains, it would be capable of supporting most of the vegetable products of the American coast in the lat.i.tude of Bordeaux.[25]

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With these astounding facts before us, due wholly to the transference of a portion of the warm currents of the Atlantic to the sh.o.r.es of Europe, even with all the disadvantages of an icy sea to the north-east and ice-covered Greenland to the north-west, how can we doubt the enormously greater effect of such a condition of things as has been shown to have existed during the Tertiary epoch? Instead of _one_ great stream of warm water spreading widely over the North Atlantic and thus losing the greater part of its store of heat _before_ it reaches the Arctic seas, we should have _several_ streams conveying the heat of far more extensive tropical oceans by comparatively narrow inland channels, thus being able to transfer a large proportion of their heat _into_ the northern and Arctic seas. The heat that they gave out during the pa.s.sage, instead of being widely dispersed by winds and much of it lost in the higher atmosphere, would directly ameliorate the climate of the continents they pa.s.sed through, and prevent all acc.u.mulation of snow except on the loftiest mountains. The formation of ice in the Arctic seas would then be impossible; and the mild winter climate of the lat.i.tude of North {87} Carolina, which by the Gulf Stream is transferred 20 northwards to our islands, might certainly, under the favourable conditions which prevailed during the Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene periods, have been carried another 20 north to Greenland and Spitzbergen; and this would bring about exactly the climate indicated by the fossil Arctic vegetation. For it must be remembered that the Arctic summers are, even now, really hotter than ours, and if the winter's cold were abolished and all ice-acc.u.mulation prevented, the high northern lands would be able to support a far more luxuriant summer vegetation than is possible in our unequal and cloudy climate.[26]

_Effect of High Excentricity on the Warm Polar Climates._--If the explanation of the cause of the glacial epoch given in the last chapter is a correct one, it will, I believe, follow that changes in the amount of excentricity will produce no important alteration of the climates of the temperate and Arctic zones so long as favourable geographical conditions, such as have been now sketched out, render the acc.u.mulation of ice impossible. The effect of a high excentricity in producing a glacial epoch was shown to be due to the capacity of snow and ice for storing up cold, and its singular power (when in large ma.s.ses) of preserving itself unmelted under a hot sun by itself causing the interposition of a protective covering of cloud and vapour. But mobile currents of water have no such power of {88} acc.u.mulating and storing up heat or cold from one year to another, though they do in a pre-eminent degree possess the power of equalising the temperature of winter and summer and of conveying the superabundant heat of the tropics to ameliorate the rigour of the Arctic winters. However great was the difference between the amount of heat received from the sun in winter and summer in the Arctic zone during a period of high excentricity and winter in _aphelion_, the inequality would be greatly diminished by the free ingress of warm currents to the polar area; and if this was sufficient to prevent any acc.u.mulation of ice, the summers would be warmed to the full extent of the powers of the sun during the long polar day, which is such as to give the pole at midsummer actually more heat during the twenty-four hours than the equator receives during its day of twelve hours. The only difference, then, that would be directly produced by the changes of excentricity and precession would be, that the summers would be at one period almost tropical, at the other of a more mild and uniform temperate character; while the winters would be at one time somewhat longer and colder, but never, probably, more severe than they are now in the west of Scotland.

But though high excentricity would not directly modify the mild climates produced by the state of the northern hemisphere which prevailed during Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene times, it might indirectly affect it by increasing the ma.s.s of Antarctic ice, and thus increasing the force of the trade-winds and the resulting northward-flowing warm currents. Now there are many peculiarities in the distribution of plants and of some groups of animals in the southern hemisphere, which render it almost certain that there has sometimes been a greater extension of the Antarctic lands during Tertiary times; and it is therefore not improbable that a more or less glaciated condition may have been a long persistent feature of the southern hemisphere, due to the peculiar distribution of land and sea which favours the production of ice-fields and glaciers. And as we have seen that during the last three million years the excentricity has been almost always much higher than {89} it is now, we should expect that the quant.i.ty of ice in the southern hemisphere will usually have been greater, and will thus have tended to increase the force of those oceanic currents which produce the mild climates of the northern hemisphere.

_Evidences of Climate in the Secondary and Palaeozoic Epochs._--We have already seen, that so far back as the Cretaceous period there is the most conclusive evidence of the prevalence of a very mild climate not only in temperate but also in Arctic lands, while there is no proof whatever, or even any clear indication, of early glacial epochs at all comparable in extent and severity with that which has so recently occurred; and we have seen reason to connect this state of things with a distribution of land and sea highly favourable to the transference of warm water from equatorial to polar lat.i.tudes. So far as we can judge by the plant-remains of our own country, the climate appears to have been almost tropical in the Lower Eocene period; and as we go further back we find no clear indications of a higher, but often of a lower temperature, though always warmer or more equable than our present climate. The abundant corals and reptiles of the Oolite and Lias indicate equally tropical conditions; but further back, in the Trias, the flora and fauna, in the British area, become poorer, and there is nothing incompatible with a climate no warmer than that of the Upper Miocene. This poverty is still more marked in the Permian formation, and it is here that some indications of ice-action are found in the Lower Permian conglomerates of the west of England. These beds contain abundant fragments of various rocks, often angular and sometimes weighing half a ton, while others are partially rounded, and have polished and striated surfaces, just like the stones of the "till." They lie confusedly bedded in a red unstratified marl, and some of them can be traced to the Welsh hills from twenty to fifty miles distant. This remarkable formation was first pointed out as proving a remote glacial period, by Professor Ramsay; and Sir Charles Lyell agreed that this is the only possible explanation that, with our present knowledge, we can give of them.

Permian breccias are also found in Ireland, containing {90} blocks of Silurian and Old Red sandstone rocks which Professor Hull believes could only have been carried by floating ice. Similar breccias occur in the south of Scotland, and these are stated to be "overlain by a deposit of glacial age, so similar to the breccia below as to be with difficulty distinguished from it."[27]

These numerous physical indications of ice-action over a considerable area during the same geological period, coinciding with just such a poverty of organic remains as might be produced by a very cold climate, are very important, and seem clearly to indicate that at this remote period geographical conditions were such as to bring about a glacial epoch, or perhaps only local glaciation, in our part of the world.

Boulder-beds also occur in the Carboniferous formation, both in Scotland, on the continent of Europe, and in North America; and Professor Dawson considers that he has detected true glacial deposits of the same age in Nova Scotia. Boulder-beds also occur in the Silurian rocks of Scotland and North America, and according to Professor Dawson, even in the Huronian, older than our Cambrian. None of these indications are however so satisfactory as those of Permian age, where we have the very kind of evidence we looked for in vain throughout the whole of the Tertiary and Secondary periods. Its presence in several localities in such ancient rocks as the Permian is not only most important as indicating a glacial epoch of some kind in Palaeozoic times, but confirms us in the validity of our conclusion, that the _total_ absence of any such evidence throughout the Tertiary and Secondary epochs demonstrates the absence of recurring glacial epochs in the northern hemisphere, notwithstanding the frequent recurrence of periods of high excentricity.

_Warm Arctic Climates in Early Secondary and Palaeozoic Times._--The evidence we have already adduced of the mild climates prevailing in the Arctic regions throughout the Miocene, Eocene, and Cretaceous periods is supplemented by a considerable body of facts relating to still earlier epochs.

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In the Jura.s.sic period, for example, we have proofs of a mild Arctic climate, in the abundant plant-remains of East Siberia and Amurland, with less productive deposits in Spitzbergen, and at Ando in Norway just within the Arctic circle. But even more remarkable are the marine remains found in many places in high northern lat.i.tudes, among which we may especially mention the numerous ammonites and the vertebrae of huge reptiles of the genera Ichthyosaurus and Teleosaurus found in the Jura.s.sic deposits of the Parry Islands in 77 N. Lat.

In the still earlier Tria.s.sic age, nautili and ammonites inhabited the seas of Spitzbergen, where their fossil remains are now found.

In the Carboniferous formation we again meet with plant-remains and beds of true coal in the Arctic regions. Lepidodendrons and Calamites, together with large spreading ferns, are found at Spitzbergen, and at Bear Island in the extreme north of Eastern Siberia; while marine deposits of the same age contain abundance of large stony corals.

Lastly, the ancient Silurian limestones, which are widely spread in the high Arctic regions, contain abundance of corals and cephalopodous mollusca resembling those from the same deposits in more temperate lands.

_Conclusions as to the Climates of Tertiary and Secondary Periods._--If now we look at the whole series of geological facts as to the animal and vegetable productions of the Arctic regions in past ages, it is certainly difficult to avoid the conclusion that they indicate a climate of a uniformly temperate or warm character. Whether in Miocene, Upper or Lower Cretaceous, Jura.s.sic, Tria.s.sic, Carboniferous or Silurian times, and in all the numerous localities extending over more than half the polar regions, we find one uniform climatic aspect in the fossils. This is quite inconsistent with the theory of alternate cold and mild epochs during phases of high excentricity, and persistent cold epochs when the excentricity was as low as it is now or lower, for that would imply that the duration of cold conditions was _greater_ than that of warm. Why then should the fauna and flora of the cold epochs _never_ be {92} preserved? Mollusca and many other forms of life are abundant in the Arctic seas, and there is often a luxuriant dwarf woody vegetation on the land, yet in no one case has a single example of such a fauna or flora been discovered of a date anterior to the last glacial epoch. And this argument is very much strengthened when we remember that an exactly a.n.a.logous series of facts is found over all the temperate zones. Everywhere we have abundant floras and faunas indicating warmer conditions than such as now prevail, but never in a single instance one which as clearly indicates colder conditions. The fact that drift with Arctic sh.e.l.ls was deposited during the last glacial epoch, as well as gravels and crag with the remains of arctic animals and plants, shows us that there is nothing to prevent such deposits being formed in cold as well as in warm periods; and it is quite impossible to believe that in every place and at all epochs all records of the former have been destroyed, while in a considerable number of instances those of the latter have been preserved. When to this uniform testimony of the palaeontological evidence we add the equally uniform absence of any indication of those ice-borne rocks, boulders, and drift, which are the constant and necessary accompaniment of every period of glaciation, and which must inevitably pervade all the marine deposits formed over a wide area so long as the state of glaciation continues, we are driven to the conclusion that the last glacial epoch of the northern hemisphere was exceptional, and was not preceded by numerous similar glacial epochs throughout Tertiary and Secondary time.

But although glacial epochs (with the one or two exceptions already referred to) were certainly absent, considerable changes of climate may have frequently occurred, and these would lead to important changes in the organic world. We can hardly doubt that some such change occurred between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous periods, the floras of which exhibit such an extraordinary contrast in general character. We have also the testimony of Mr. J. S. Gardner, who has long worked at the fossil floras of the Tertiary deposits, and who states, that {93} there is strong negative and some positive evidence of alternating warmer and colder conditions, not glacial, contained not only in English Eocene, but all Tertiary beds throughout the world.[28] In the case of marine faunas it is more difficult to judge, but the numerous changes in the fossil remains from bed to bed only a few feet and sometimes a few inches apart, may be sometimes due to change of climate; and when it is recognised that such changes have probably occurred at all geological epochs and their effects are systematically searched for, many peculiarities in the distribution of organisms through the different members of one deposit may be traced to this cause.

_General View of Geological Climates as dependent on the Physical Features of the Earth's Surface._--In the preceding chapters I have earnestly endeavoured to arrive at an explanation of geological climates in the temperate and Arctic zones, which should be in harmony with the great body of geological facts now available for their elucidation. If my conclusions as here set forth diverge considerably from those of Dr. Croll, it is not from any want of appreciation of his facts and arguments, since for many years I have upheld and enforced his views to the best of my ability. But a careful re-examination of the whole question has now convinced me that an error has been made in estimating the comparative effect of geographical and astronomical causes on changes of climate, and that, while the latter have undoubtedly played an important part in bringing about the glacial epoch, it is to the former that the mild climates of the Arctic regions are almost entirely due. If I have now succeeded in approaching to a true solution of this difficult problem, I owe it mainly to the study of Dr.

Croll's writings, since my theory is entirely based on the facts and principles so clearly set forth in his admirable papers on "Ocean Currents in relation to the Distribution of Heat over the Globe." The main features of this theory as distinct from that of Dr. Croll I will now endeavour to summarise.

Looking at the subject broadly, we see that the climatic {94} condition of the northern hemisphere is the result of the peculiar distribution of land and water upon the globe; and the general permanence of the position of the continental and oceanic areas--which we have shown to be proved by so many distinct lines of evidence--is also implied by the general stability of climate throughout long geological periods. The land surface of our earth appears to have always consisted of three great ma.s.ses in the north temperate zone, narrowing southward, and terminating in three comparatively narrow extremities represented by Southern America, South Africa, and Australia. Towards the north these ma.s.ses have approached each other, and have sometimes become united; leaving beyond them a considerable area of open polar sea. Towards the south they have never been much further prolonged than at present, but far beyond their extremities an extensive ma.s.s of land has occupied the south polar area.

This arrangement is such as would cause the northern hemisphere to be always (as it is now) warmer than the southern, and this would lead to the preponderance of northward winds and ocean currents, and would bring about the concentration of the latter in three great streams carrying warmth to the north-polar regions. These streams would, as Dr. Croll has so well shown, be greatly increased in power by the glaciation of the south polar land; and whenever any considerable portion of this land was elevated, such a condition of glaciation would certainly be brought about, and would be heightened whenever a high degree of excentricity prevailed.

It is now the general opinion of geologists that the great continents have undergone a process of development from earlier to later times. Professor Dana appears to have been the first who taught it explicitly in the case of the North American continent, and he has continued the development of his views from 1856, when he discussed the subject in the _American Journal_, to the later editions of his _Manual of Geology_ in which the same views are extended to all the great continents. He says:--

"The North American continent, which since early {95} time had been gradually expanding in each direction from the northern Azoic, eastward, westward, and southward, and which, after the Palaeozoic, was finished in its rocky foundation, excepting on the borders of the Atlantic and Pacific and the area of the Rocky Mountains, had reached its full expansion at the close of the Tertiary period. The progress from the first was uniform and systematic: the land was at all times simple in outline; and its enlargement took place with almost the regularity of an exogenous plant."[29]

A similar development undoubtedly took place in the European area, which was apparently never so compact and so little interpenetrated by the sea as it is now, while Europe and Asia have only become united into one unbroken ma.s.s since late Tertiary times.

If, however, the greater continents have become more compact and ma.s.sive from age to age, and have received their chief extensions northward at a comparatively recent period, while the Antarctic lands had a corresponding but somewhat earlier development, we have all the conditions requisite to explain the persistence, with slight fluctuations, of warm climates far into the north-polar area throughout Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary times. At length, during the latter part of the Tertiary epoch, a considerable elevation took place, closing up several of the water pa.s.sages to the north, and raising up extensive areas in the Arctic regions to become the receptacle of snow and ice-fields. This elevation is indicated by the abundance of Miocene and the absence of Pliocene deposits in the Arctic zone and the considerable alt.i.tude of many Miocene rocks in Europe and North America; and the occurrence at this time of a long-continued period of high excentricity necessarily brought on the glacial epoch in the manner already described in our last chapter. A depression seems to have occurred during the glacial period itself in North America as in Britain, but this may have been due partly to the weight of the ice and partly to a rise of the ocean {96} level caused by the earth's centre of gravity being shifted towards the north.

We thus see that the last glacial epoch was the climax of a great process of continental development which had been going on throughout long geological ages; and that it was the direct consequence of the north temperate and polar land having attained a great extension and a considerable alt.i.tude just at the time when a phase of very high excentricity was coming on. Throughout earlier Tertiary and Secondary times an equally high excentricity often occurred, but it never produced a glacial epoch, because the north temperate and polar areas had less high land, and were more freely open to the influx of warm oceanic currents. But wherever great plateaux with lofty mountains occurred in the temperate zone a considerable _local_ glaciation might be produced, which would be specially intense during periods of high excentricity; and it is to such causes we must impute the indications of ice-action in the vicinity of the Alps during the Tertiary period. The Permian glaciation appears to have been more extensive, and it is quite possible that at this remote epoch a sufficient ma.s.s of high land existed in our area and northwards towards the pole, to have brought on a true glacial period comparable with that which has so recently pa.s.sed away.

_Estimate of the comparative effects of Geographical and Astronomical Causes in producing Changes of Climate._--It appears then, that while geographical and physical causes alone, by their influence on ocean currents, have been the main agents in producing the mild climates which for such long periods prevailed in the Arctic regions, the concurrence of astronomical causes--high excentricity with winter in _aphelion_--was necessary to the production of the great glacial epoch. If we reject this latter agency, we shall be obliged to imagine a concurrence of geographical changes at a very recent period of which we have no evidence. We must suppose, for example, that a large part of the British Isles--Scotland, Ireland, and Wales at all events--were simultaneously elevated so as to bring extensive areas above the line of perpetual snow; that {97} about the same time Scandinavia, the Alps, and the Pyrenees received a similar increase of alt.i.tude; and that, almost simultaneously, Eastern North America, the Sierra Nevada of California, the Caucasus, Lebanon, the southern mountains of Spain, the Atlas range, and the Himalayas, were each some thousands of feet higher than they are now; for all these mountains present us with indications of a recent extension of their glaciers, in superficial phenomena so similar to those which occur in our own country and in Western Europe, that we cannot suppose them to belong to a different epoch. Such a supposition is rendered more difficult by the general concurrence of scientific testimony to a partial submergence during the glacial epoch, not only in all parts of Britain, but in North America, Scandinavia, and, as shown by the wide extension of the drift, in Northern Europe; and when to this we add the difficulty of understanding how any probable addition to the alt.i.tude of our islands could have brought about the extreme amount of glaciation which they certainly underwent, and when, further, we know that a phase of very high excentricity did occur at a period which is generally admitted to agree well with physical evidence of the time elapsed since the cold pa.s.sed away, there seems no sufficient reason why such an agency should be ignored.

No doubt a prejudice has been excited against it in the minds of many geologists, by its being thought to lead _necessarily_ to frequently recurring glacial epochs throughout all geological time. But I have here endeavoured to show that this is _not_ a necessary consequence of the theory, because a concurrence of favourable geographical conditions is essential to the initiation of a glaciation, which when once initiated has a tendency to maintain itself throughout the varying phases of precession occurring during a period of high excentricity. When, however, geographical conditions favour warm Arctic climates--as it has been shown they have done throughout the larger portion of geological time--then changes of excentricity, to however great an extent, have no tendency to bring about a state of glaciation, because warm oceanic currents have a {98} preponderating influence, and without very large areas of high northern land to act as condensers, no perpetual snow is possible, and hence the initial process of glaciation does not occur.

The theory as now set forth should commend itself to geologists, since it shows the direct dependence of climate on physical processes, which are guided and modified by those changes in the earth's surface which geology alone can trace out. It is in perfect accord with the most recent teachings of the science as to the gradual and progressive development of the earth's crust from the rudimentary formations of the Azoic age, and it lends support to the view that no inportant[**important] departure from the great lines of elevation and depression originally marked out on the earth's surface has ever taken place.

It also shows us how important an agent in the production of a habitable globe with comparatively small extremes of climates over its whole area, is the great disproportion between the extent of the land and the water surfaces. For if these proportions had been reversed, large areas of land would necessarily have been removed from the beneficial influence of aqueous currents or moisture-laden winds; and slight geological changes might easily have led to half the land surface becoming covered with perpetual snow and ice, or being exposed to extremes of summer heat and winter cold, of which our water-permeated globe at present affords no example. We thus see that what are usually regarded as geographical anomalies--the disproportion of land and water, the gathering of the land mainly into one hemisphere, and the singular arrangement of the land in three great southward-pointing ma.s.ses--are really facts of the greatest significance and importance, since it is to these very anomalies that the universal spread of vegetation and the adaptability of so large a portion of the earth's surface for human habitation is directly due.

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CHAPTER X

THE EARTH'S AGE, AND THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Various Estimates of Geological Time--Denudation and Deposition of Strata as a Measure of Time--How to Estimate the Thickness of the Sedimentary Rocks--How to Estimate the Average Rate of Deposition of the Sedimentary Rocks--The Rate of Geological Change Probably greater in very Remote Times--Value of the Preceding Estimate of Geological Time--Organic Modification Dependent on Change of Conditions--Geographical Mutations as a Motive Power in bringing about Organic Changes--Climatal Revolutions as an Agent in Producing Organic Changes--Present Condition of the Earth one of Exceptional Stability as Regards Climate--Date of last Glacial Epoch and its Bearing on the Measurement of Geological Time--Concluding Remarks.

The subjects discussed in the last three chapters introduce us to a difficulty which has. .h.i.therto been considered a very formidable one--that the maximum age of the habitable earth, as deduced from physical considerations, does not afford sufficient time either for the geological or the organic changes of which we have evidence. Geologists continually dwell on the slowness of the processes of upheaval and subsidence, of denudation of the earth's surface, and of the formation of new strata; while on the theory of development, as expounded by Mr. Darwin, the variation and modification of organic forms is also a very slow process, and has usually been considered to require an {100} even longer series of ages than might satisfy the requirements of physical geology alone.

As an indication of the periods usually contemplated by geologists, we may refer to Sir Charles Lyell's calculation in the tenth edition of his _Principles of Geology_ (omitted in later editions), by which he arrived at 240 millions of years as having probably elapsed since the Cambrian period--a very moderate estimate in the opinion of most geologists. This calculation was founded on the rate of modification of the species of mollusca; but much more recently Professor Haughton has arrived at nearly similar figures from a consideration of the rate of formation of rocks and their known maximum thickness, whence he deduces a maximum of 200 millions of years for the whole duration of geological time, as indicated by the series of stratified formations.[30] But in the opinion of all our first naturalists and geologists, the period occupied in the formation of the known stratified rocks only represents a portion, and perhaps a small portion, of geological time. In the sixth edition of the _Origin of Species_ (p. 286), Mr. Darwin says: "Consequently, if the theory be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Cambrian stratum was deposited long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Cambrian age to the present day; and that during these vast periods the world swarmed with living creatures." Professor Huxley, in his anniversary address to the Geological Society in 1870, adduced a number of special cases showing that, on the theory of development, almost all the higher forms of life must have existed during the Palaeozoic period. Thus, from the fact that almost the whole of the Tertiary period has been required to convert the ancestral Orohippus into the true horse, he believes that, in order to have time for the much greater change of the ancestral Ungulata into the two great odd-toed and even-toed divisions (of which change there is no trace even among the earliest Eocene mammals), we should require a large portion, if not the whole, of the Mesozoic or Secondary period. Another case is furnished by the bats and whales, both of which strange modifications of the {101} mammalian type occur perfectly developed in the Eocene formation. What countless ages back must we then go for the origin of these groups, the whales from some ancestral carnivorous animal, and the bats from the insectivora! And even then we have to seek for the common origin of carnivora, insectivora, ungulata, and marsupials at a far earlier period; so that, on the lowest estimate, we must place the origin of the mammalia very far back in Palaeozoic times. Similar evidence is afforded by reptiles, of which Professor Huxley says: "If the very small differences which are observable between the crocodiles of the older Secondary formations and those of the present day furnish any sort of an approximation towards an estimate of the average rate of change among reptiles, it is almost appalling to reflect how far back in Palaeozoic times we must go before we can hope to arrive at that common stock from which the crocodiles, lizards, _Ornithoscelida_, and _Plesiosauria_, which had attained so great a development in the Tria.s.sic epoch, must have been derived." Professor Ramsay has expressed similar views, derived from a general study of the whole series of geological formations and their contained fossils. He says, speaking of the abundant, varied, and well-developed fauna of the Cambrian period: "In this earliest known _varied_ life we find no evidence of its having lived near the beginning of the zoological series. In a broad sense, compared with what must have gone before, both biologically and physically, all the phenomena connected with this old period seem, to my mind, to be of quite a recent description; and the climates of seas and lands were of the very same kind as those the world enjoys at the present day."[31]

These opinions, and the facts on which they are founded, are so weighty, that we can hardly doubt that, if the time since the Cambrian epoch is correctly estimated at 200 millions of years, the date of the commencement of life on the earth cannot be much less than 500 millions; while it may not improbably have been longer, because the reaction of {102} the organism under changes of the environment is believed to have been less active in low and simple, than in high and complex forms of life, and thus the processes of organic development may for countless ages have been excessively slow.

But according to the physicists, no such periods as are here contemplated can be granted. From a consideration of the possible sources of the heat of the sun, as well as from calculations of the period during which the earth can have been cooling to bring about the present rate of increase of temperature as we descend beneath the surface, Sir William Thomson concludes that the crust of the earth cannot have been solidified much longer than 100 million years (the maximum possible being 400 millions), and this conclusion is held by Dr. Croll and other men of eminence to be almost indisputable.[32] It will therefore be well to consider on what data the calculations of geologists have been founded, and how far the views here set forth, as to frequent changes of climate throughout all geological time, may affect the rate of biological change.

_Denudation and Deposition of Strata as a Measure of Time._--The materials of all the stratified rocks of the globe have been obtained from the dry land. Every point of the surface is exposed to the destructive influences of sun and wind, frost, snow, and rain, which break up and wear away the hardest rocks as well as the softer deposits, and by means of rivers convey the worn material to the sea. The existence of a considerable depth of soil over the greater part of the earth's surface; of vast heaps of rocky _debris_ at the foot of every inland cliff; of enormous deposits of gravel, sand, and loam; as well as the shingle, pebbles, sand or mud, of every sea-sh.o.r.e, alike attest the universality of this destructive agency. It is no less clearly shown by the way in which almost every drop of running water--whether in gutter, brooklet, stream or large river--becomes discoloured after each heavy rainfall, since the matter which causes this discolouration must be derived from the surface {103} of the country, must always pa.s.s from a higher to a lower level, and must ultimately reach the sea, unless it is first deposited in some lake, or by the overflowing of a river goes to form an alluvial plain. The universality of this subaerial denudation, both as regards s.p.a.ce and time, renders it certain that its c.u.mulative effects must be very great; but no attempt seems to have been made to determine the magnitude of these effects till Mr. Alfred Tylor, in 1853,[33] pointed out that by measuring the quant.i.ty of solid matter brought down by rivers (which can be done with considerable accuracy), we may obtain the amount of lowering of the land-area, and also the rise of the ocean level, owing to the quant.i.ty of matter deposited on its floor. A few years later Dr. Croll applied the same method in more detail to an estimate of the amount by which the land is lowered in a given period; and the validity of this method has been upheld by Sir A. Geikie, Sir Charles Lyell, and all our best geologists, as affording a means of actually determining with some approach to accuracy, the time occupied by one important phase of geological change.

The quant.i.ty of matter carried away from the land by a river is greater than at first sight appears, and is more likely to be under- than over-estimated. By taking samples of water near the mouth of a river (but above the influence of the tide) at a sufficient number of points in its channel and at different depths, and repeating this daily or at other short intervals throughout the year, it is easy to determine the quant.i.ty of solid matter held in suspension and solution; and if corresponding observations determine the quant.i.ty of water that is discharged, the total amount of solid matter brought down annually may be calculated. But besides this, a considerable quant.i.ty of sand or even gravel is carried along the bottom or bed of the river, and this has rarely been estimated, so that the figures. .h.i.therto obtained are usually under the real quant.i.ties. There is also another source of error caused by the quant.i.ty of matter the river may deposit in lakes or in flooded lands during its course, for this adds to the amount of denudation performed by the river, although {104} the matter so deposited does not come down to the sea. After a careful examination of all the best records, Sir A. Geikie arrives at the following results, as to the quant.i.ty of matter removed by seven rivers from their basins, estimated by the number of years required to lower the whole surface an average of one foot:

The Mississippi removes one foot in 6,000 years.

,, Ganges ,, ,, 2,358 ,, ,, Hoang Ho ,, ,, 1,464 ,, ,, Rhone ,, ,, 1,528 ,, ,, Danube ,, ,, 6,846 ,, ,, Po ,, ,, 729 ,, ,, Nith ,, ,, 4,723 ,,

Here we see an intelligible relation between the character of the river basin and the amount of denudation. The Mississippi has a large portion of its basin in an arid country, and its sources are either in forest-clad plateaux or in mountains free from glaciers and with a scanty rainfall. The Danube flows through Eastern Europe where the rainfall is considerably less than in the west, while comparatively few of its tributaries rise among the loftiest Alps. The proportionate amounts of denudation being then what we might expect, and as all are probably under rather than over the truth, we may safely take the average of them all as representing an amount of denudation which, if not true for the whole land surface of the globe, will certainly be so for a very considerable proportion of it. This average is almost exactly one foot in three thousand years.[34] The mean alt.i.tude of the several {105} continents has been recently estimated by Mr. John Murray,[35] to be as follows: Europe 939 feet, Asia 3,189 feet, Africa 2020 feet, North America 1,888 feet, and South America 2,078 feet. At the rate of denudation above given, it results that, were no other forces at work, Europe would be planed down to the sea-level in about two million eight hundred thousand years; while if we take a somewhat slower rate for North America, that continent might last about four or five million years.[36]

This also implies that the mean height of these continents would have been about double what it is now three million and five million years ago respectively: and as we have no reason to suppose this to have been the case, we are led to infer the constant action of that upheaving force which the presence of sedimentary formations even on the highest mountains also demonstrates.