Good Business Part 11

Mimicry. An excellent example of how a ritual disguise can help one to step out of ordinary experience is given by Monti (1969, pp. 915), in his discussion of the use of West African ceremonial masks: An excellent example of how a ritual disguise can help one to step out of ordinary experience is given by Monti (1969, pp. 915), in his discussion of the use of West African ceremonial masks: "From a psychological point of view the origin of the mask can also be explained by the more atavistic aspiration of the human being to escape from himself in order to be enriched by the experience of different existences aspiration of the human being to escape from himself in order to be enriched by the experience of different existences-a desire which obviously cannot be fulfilled on the physical level-and in order to increase its own power by identifying with universal, divine, or demonic forces, whichever they may be. It is a desire to break out of the human constriction of individuals shaped in a specific and immutable mould and closed in a birth-death cycle which leaves no possibility of consciously chosen existential adventures consciously chosen existential adventures" (italics added).

Flow and discovery. When asked to rank 16 very different activities as being more or less similar to flow, the groups of highly skilled rock climbers, composers of music, chess players, and so on studied by Csikszentmihalyi (1975, p. 29) listed the item "Designing or discovering something new" as being the most similar to their flow activity. When asked to rank 16 very different activities as being more or less similar to flow, the groups of highly skilled rock climbers, composers of music, chess players, and so on studied by Csikszentmihalyi (1975, p. 29) listed the item "Designing or discovering something new" as being the most similar to their flow activity.

Flow and growth. The issue of how flow experiences lead to growth of the self are discussed in Deci & Ryan (1985) and Csikszentmihalyi (1982b, 1985a). Anne Wells (1988) has shown that women who spend more time in flow have a more positive self-concept. The issue of how flow experiences lead to growth of the self are discussed in Deci & Ryan (1985) and Csikszentmihalyi (1982b, 1985a). Anne Wells (1988) has shown that women who spend more time in flow have a more positive self-concept.

Flow and ritual. The anthropologist Victor Turner (1974) saw the ubiquity of the ritual processes in preliterate societies as an indication that they were socially sanctioned opportunities to experience flow. Religious rituals in general are usually conducive to the flow experience (see Carrington 1977; Csikszentmihalyi 1987; I. Csikszentmihalyi 1988; and Wilson 1985 and in press). A good introduction to the historical relationship between the sacred and the secular dimensions of leisure can be found in John R. Kelly's textbook The anthropologist Victor Turner (1974) saw the ubiquity of the ritual processes in preliterate societies as an indication that they were socially sanctioned opportunities to experience flow. Religious rituals in general are usually conducive to the flow experience (see Carrington 1977; Csikszentmihalyi 1987; I. Csikszentmihalyi 1988; and Wilson 1985 and in press). A good introduction to the historical relationship between the sacred and the secular dimensions of leisure can be found in John R. Kelly's textbook Leisure Leisure (1982, pp. 5368). (1982, pp. 5368).

Flow and art. A description of how pa.s.sive visual aesthetic experiences can produce flow is given in Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press). The religious significance of A description of how pa.s.sive visual aesthetic experiences can produce flow is given in Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press). The religious significance of Mayan ball games Mayan ball games is described in Blom (1932) and Gilpin (1948). is described in Blom (1932) and Gilpin (1948). Pok-ta-pok Pok-ta-pok, as this game similar to basketball was called, took place in a stone courtyard, and the aim was for one team to throw the ball through the opponents' stone hoop placed about 28 feet above the playing field-without touching it with their hands. Father Diego Duran, an early Spanish missionary, gives a vivid description: "...It was a game of much recreation to them and enjoyment among which were some who played it with such dexterity and skill that they during one hour succeeded in not stopping the flight of the ball from one end to the other without missing a single hit with their b.u.t.tocks, not being allowed to reach it with hands nor feet, nor with the calf of their legs, nor with their arms..." (quoted in Blom 1932). Apparently such games sometimes ended in human sacrifices or the killing of the members of the losing team (Pina Chan 1969).

Flow and society. The idea that the kind of flow activities a society made available to its people could reflect something essential about the society itself was first suggested in Csikszentmihalyi (1981a, 1981b). See also Argyle (1987, p. 65). The idea that the kind of flow activities a society made available to its people could reflect something essential about the society itself was first suggested in Csikszentmihalyi (1981a, 1981b). See also Argyle (1987, p. 65).

The issue of cultural relativism cultural relativism is too complex to be given an unbiased evaluation here. An excellent (but not impartial) review of the concept is given by the anthropologist Melford Spiro (1987), who in a recent autobiographical account describes why he changed his mind from an uncritical acceptance of the equal value of cultural practices to a much more qualified recognition of the pathological forms that cultures can occasionally a.s.sume. Philosophers and other humanists have often accused social scientists, sometimes with justification, of "debunking" absolute values that are important for the survival of culture (e.g., Arendt 1958, Bloom 1987). The early Italian-Swiss sociologist Vilfredo Pareto (1917, 1919) has been one of the scholars most keenly aware of the dangers of relativity inherent in his discipline. is too complex to be given an unbiased evaluation here. An excellent (but not impartial) review of the concept is given by the anthropologist Melford Spiro (1987), who in a recent autobiographical account describes why he changed his mind from an uncritical acceptance of the equal value of cultural practices to a much more qualified recognition of the pathological forms that cultures can occasionally a.s.sume. Philosophers and other humanists have often accused social scientists, sometimes with justification, of "debunking" absolute values that are important for the survival of culture (e.g., Arendt 1958, Bloom 1987). The early Italian-Swiss sociologist Vilfredo Pareto (1917, 1919) has been one of the scholars most keenly aware of the dangers of relativity inherent in his discipline.

English workers. The cla.s.sic story of how the free English workers were transformed into highly regimented industrial laborers is told by the historian E. P. Thompson (1963). The cla.s.sic story of how the free English workers were transformed into highly regimented industrial laborers is told by the historian E. P. Thompson (1963).

The suspicious Dobuans Dobuans were studied by the anthropologist Reo Fortune (1932 [1963]). For the tragic plight of the were studied by the anthropologist Reo Fortune (1932 [1963]). For the tragic plight of the Ik Ik of Uganda see Turnbull (1972). of Uganda see Turnbull (1972).

Yonomamo. This fierce tribe was immortalized by the writings of the anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon (1979). The This fierce tribe was immortalized by the writings of the anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon (1979). The sad Nigerian tribe sad Nigerian tribe was described by Laura Bohannan, under the pseudonym E. S. Bowen (1954). Colin Turnbull (1961) gave a loving description of the pygmies of the was described by Laura Bohannan, under the pseudonym E. S. Bowen (1954). Colin Turnbull (1961) gave a loving description of the pygmies of the Ituri Ituri forest. The quote concerning the forest. The quote concerning the Shushwap Shushwap was contained in a 1986 letter from Richard Kool to the author. was contained in a 1986 letter from Richard Kool to the author.

The information about the Great Ise Shrine Great Ise Shrine was provided in a personal communication by Mark Csikszentmihalyi. was provided in a personal communication by Mark Csikszentmihalyi.

For the percentages of happy people in different nations, happy people in different nations, see George Gallup (1976). The study that showed U.S. respondents to be about as happy as Cubans and Egyptians was conducted by Easterlin (1974). For a general discussion of happiness and cross-cultural differences, see Argyle (1987, pp. 10211). see George Gallup (1976). The study that showed U.S. respondents to be about as happy as Cubans and Egyptians was conducted by Easterlin (1974). For a general discussion of happiness and cross-cultural differences, see Argyle (1987, pp. 10211).

Affluence and happiness. Both Argyle (1987) and Veenhoven (1984) agree, on the basis of their evaluation of practically every study in the field conducted so far, that there is conclusive evidence for a positive but very modest correlation between material well-being and happiness or satisfaction with life. Both Argyle (1987) and Veenhoven (1984) agree, on the basis of their evaluation of practically every study in the field conducted so far, that there is conclusive evidence for a positive but very modest correlation between material well-being and happiness or satisfaction with life.

The time budgets time budgets for U.S. workers are based on our ESM studies (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Graef 1980; Graef, Csikszentmihalyi, & Gianinno 1983; Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre 1987, 1989). These estimates are very similar to those obtained with much more extensive surveys (e.g., Robinson 1977). for U.S. workers are based on our ESM studies (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Graef 1980; Graef, Csikszentmihalyi, & Gianinno 1983; Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre 1987, 1989). These estimates are very similar to those obtained with much more extensive surveys (e.g., Robinson 1977).

Stimulus overinclusion in schizophrenia. The concept of anhedonia was originally developed by the psychiatrist Roy Grinker. Overinclusion and the symptomatology of attentional disorders have been studied by, among others, Harrow, Grinker, Holzman, & Kayton (1977) and Harrow, Tucker, Hanover, & Shield (1972). The quotations are from McGhie & Chapman (1961, pp. 109, 114). I have argued the continuity between lack of flow experiences due to severe psychopathologies and milder attentional disorders often caused by social deprivation in Csikszentmihalyi (1978, 1982a). The concept of anhedonia was originally developed by the psychiatrist Roy Grinker. Overinclusion and the symptomatology of attentional disorders have been studied by, among others, Harrow, Grinker, Holzman, & Kayton (1977) and Harrow, Tucker, Hanover, & Shield (1972). The quotations are from McGhie & Chapman (1961, pp. 109, 114). I have argued the continuity between lack of flow experiences due to severe psychopathologies and milder attentional disorders often caused by social deprivation in Csikszentmihalyi (1978, 1982a).

Among the studies of the Eskimo Eskimo that are worth reading are those of Carpenter (1970, 1973). The destruction of that are worth reading are those of Carpenter (1970, 1973). The destruction of Caribbean Caribbean cultures is described by Mintz (1985). The concept of cultures is described by Mintz (1985). The concept of anomie anomie was originally developed by Emile Durkheim in his work was originally developed by Emile Durkheim in his work Suicide Suicide (1897 [1951]). The best introduction to the concept of (1897 [1951]). The best introduction to the concept of alienation alienation is in the early ma.n.u.scripts of Karl Marx, especially his is in the early ma.n.u.scripts of Karl Marx, especially his Economic and Philosophic Ma.n.u.scripts of 1844 Economic and Philosophic Ma.n.u.scripts of 1844 (see Tucker 1972). The sociologist Richard Mitch.e.l.l (1983, 1988) has argued that anomie and alienation are the societal counterparts of anxiety and boredom, respectively, and that they occur when people cannot find flow because the conditions of everyday life are either too chaotic or too predictable. (see Tucker 1972). The sociologist Richard Mitch.e.l.l (1983, 1988) has argued that anomie and alienation are the societal counterparts of anxiety and boredom, respectively, and that they occur when people cannot find flow because the conditions of everyday life are either too chaotic or too predictable.

The neurophysiological hypothesis concerning attention and flow is based on the following research: Hamilton (1976, 1981), Hamilton, Holcomb, & De la Pena (1977), and Hamilton, Haier, & Buchsbaum (1984). This line of research is now continuing with the use of more sophisticated brain-scanning equipment. concerning attention and flow is based on the following research: Hamilton (1976, 1981), Hamilton, Holcomb, & De la Pena (1977), and Hamilton, Haier, & Buchsbaum (1984). This line of research is now continuing with the use of more sophisticated brain-scanning equipment.

Cortical activation is the amount of electrical activity in the cerebral cortex at a given moment in time; its amplitude (in microvolts) has been used to indicate the general effort taking place in the brain at that time. When people concentrate their attention, their cortical activation is generally found to increase, indicating an increase in mental effort. is the amount of electrical activity in the cerebral cortex at a given moment in time; its amplitude (in microvolts) has been used to indicate the general effort taking place in the brain at that time. When people concentrate their attention, their cortical activation is generally found to increase, indicating an increase in mental effort.

The study of autotelic families autotelic families is reported in Rathunde (1988). His findings are in line with many previous investigations, for instance that securely attached infants engage more in exploratory behavior (Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton 1971, Matas, Arend, & Sroufe 1978), or that an optimal balance between love and discipline is the best child-rearing context (Bronfenbrenner 1970, Devereux 1970, Baumrind 1977). The systems approach to family studies, which is very congenial with the one developed here, was pioneered in clinical settings by Bowen (1978). is reported in Rathunde (1988). His findings are in line with many previous investigations, for instance that securely attached infants engage more in exploratory behavior (Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton 1971, Matas, Arend, & Sroufe 1978), or that an optimal balance between love and discipline is the best child-rearing context (Bronfenbrenner 1970, Devereux 1970, Baumrind 1977). The systems approach to family studies, which is very congenial with the one developed here, was pioneered in clinical settings by Bowen (1978).

The people of flow. This is the term Richard Logan (1985, 1988) used to describe individuals who are able to transform trying ordeals into flow experiences. The quote This is the term Richard Logan (1985, 1988) used to describe individuals who are able to transform trying ordeals into flow experiences. The quote "If the reach of experience..." "If the reach of experience..." is from Burney (1952, pp. 1618). is from Burney (1952, pp. 1618).

Eva Zeisel's imprisonment is described in a New Yorker New Yorker profile (Lessard 1987). How a profile (Lessard 1987). How a Chinese lady Chinese lady survived the brutalities of the Cultural Revolution is the subject of survived the brutalities of the Cultural Revolution is the subject of Life and Death in Shanghai Life and Death in Shanghai (Cheng 1987). (Cheng 1987). Solzhenitsyn Solzhenitsyn's accounts of prison are from The Gulag Archipelago The Gulag Archipelago (1976). (1976).

The account by Tollas Tibor Tollas Tibor is reconstructed from personal conversations we had in the summer of 1957, when he was released from jail after the Hungarian revolution. is reconstructed from personal conversations we had in the summer of 1957, when he was released from jail after the Hungarian revolution.

The quote from Solzhenitsyn Solzhenitsyn is cited in Logan (1985). is cited in Logan (1985). Bettelheim Bettelheim presents his generalizations about imprisonment based on his concentration camp experiences in the article "Individual and Ma.s.s Behavior in Extreme Situations" (1943); for presents his generalizations about imprisonment based on his concentration camp experiences in the article "Individual and Ma.s.s Behavior in Extreme Situations" (1943); for Frankl Frankl see see Man's Search for Meaning Man's Search for Meaning and and The Unheard Cry for Meaning The Unheard Cry for Meaning (1963, 1978). (1963, 1978).

The quotation from Russell Russell was cited in an article in was cited in an article in Self Self magazine (Merser 1987, p. 147). magazine (Merser 1987, p. 147).

CHAPTER 5.

The Tarahumara Tarahumara festivals that include ritual footraces up and down the mountains of northern Mexico for hundreds of miles are described in Lumholtz (1902 [1987]) and Nabokov (1981). An account of the ritual elements involved in modern sports is given by MacAloon's (1981) study of the modern Olympics. festivals that include ritual footraces up and down the mountains of northern Mexico for hundreds of miles are described in Lumholtz (1902 [1987]) and Nabokov (1981). An account of the ritual elements involved in modern sports is given by MacAloon's (1981) study of the modern Olympics.

The Icarus complex Icarus complex was explored by Henry A. Murray (1955). was explored by Henry A. Murray (1955).

At this point it might be appropriate to confront squarely the Freudian concept of sublimation sublimation, a topic that, if bypa.s.sed, might leave us with the nagging feeling of an unresolved problem. Superficial applications of Freud's thought have led many people to interpret any action that is not directed to the satisfaction of basic s.e.xual desires either as a defense, when it aims to hold back an unacceptable wish that otherwise might be expressed, or as a sublimation, when an acceptable goal is subst.i.tuted for a desire that could not be safely expressed in its original form. At best, sublimation is a poor subst.i.tute for the unsatisfied pleasure it helps to disguise. For example, Bergler (1970) has argued that games involving risk provide a release from guilt about s.e.xuality and aggression. According to the "Icarus complex" a high jumper is trying to escape from the ties of an Oedipal tangle in a socially acceptable way, but without really resolving the basic conflict that motivates his actions. Similarly, Jones (1931) and Fine (1956) have explained chess as a way of coping with castration anxiety (to mate the opponent's king with the help of one's queen is a sublimated enactment of the father's castration with the collusion of the mother); and mountain climbing has been explained as sublimated p.e.n.i.s envy. n.o.body seems to do anything, according to this point of view, except to resolve a festering childhood anxiety.

The logical consequence of reducing motivation to a search for pleasure that is instigated by a few basic genetically programmed desires, however, is a failure to account for much of the behavior that differentiates humans from other animal species. To ill.u.s.trate this, it is useful to examine the role of enjoyment in an evolutionary perspective.

Life is shaped as much by the future as it is by the past. The first fish to leave the sea for dry land were not programmed to do so, but exploited unused potentials in their makeup to take advantage of the opportunities of an entirely new environment. The monkeys who use sticks to fish for ants at the mouth of anthills are not following a destiny carved in their genes, but are experimenting with possibilities that in the future may lead to the conscious use of tools, and hence to what we call progress. And certainly human history can only be understood as the action of people striving to realize indistinct dreams. It is not a question of teleology-the belief that our actions are the unfolding of a preordained destiny-because teleology is also a mechanistic concept. The goals we pursue are not determined in advance or built into our makeup. They are discovered in the process of enjoying the extension of our skills in novel settings, in new environments.

Enjoyment seems to be the mechanism that natural selection has provided to ensure that we will evolve and become more complex. (This argument has been made in Csikszentmihalyi and Ma.s.simini [1985]; I. Csikszentmihalyi [1988]; and M. Csikszentmihalyi [1988]. The evolutionary implications of flow were also perceived by Crook [1980].) Just as pleasure from eating makes us want to eat more, and pleasure from physical love makes us want to have s.e.x, both of which we need to do in order to survive and reproduce, enjoyment motivates us to do things that push us beyond the present and into the future. It makes no sense to a.s.sume that only the pursuit of pleasure is the source of "natural" desires, and any other motivation must be its pale derivative. The rewards of reaching new goals are just as genuine as the rewards of satisfying old needs.

The study of the relationship between happiness and energy consumption happiness and energy consumption was reported in Graef, Gianinno, & Csikszentmihalyi (1981). was reported in Graef, Gianinno, & Csikszentmihalyi (1981).

The U.S. dancers' dancers' quotations are from Csikszentmihalyi (1975, p. 104). The Italian dancer's is from Delle Fave & Ma.s.simini (1988, p. 212). quotations are from Csikszentmihalyi (1975, p. 104). The Italian dancer's is from Delle Fave & Ma.s.simini (1988, p. 212).

The cultivation of s.e.xuality s.e.xuality. An excellent historical review of Western ideas about love, and of the behaviors that accompanied it, is given in the three volumes of The Nature of Love The Nature of Love by Irving Singer (1981). A compendium of contemporary psychologists' views on love was collected by Kenneth Pope (1980). A very recent statement on the subject is by the Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg (1988), who expands the cla.s.sical description of love as by Irving Singer (1981). A compendium of contemporary psychologists' views on love was collected by Kenneth Pope (1980). A very recent statement on the subject is by the Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg (1988), who expands the cla.s.sical description of love as eros eros or as or as agape agape to three components: intimacy, pa.s.sion, and commitment. Liza Dalby (1983), an American anthropologist who spent a few years training as a geisha in Kyoto, gives a good description of the refinements involved in the Far Eastern approach to s.e.xuality. For the lack of romance in antiquity, see Veyne (1987, esp. pp. 2025). to three components: intimacy, pa.s.sion, and commitment. Liza Dalby (1983), an American anthropologist who spent a few years training as a geisha in Kyoto, gives a good description of the refinements involved in the Far Eastern approach to s.e.xuality. For the lack of romance in antiquity, see Veyne (1987, esp. pp. 2025).

The way in which the rules of the Jesuit order developed by Saint Ignatius of Loyola Loyola helped organize life as a unified activity, potentially suited to provide flow experience for those who followed them, is described in I. Csikszentmihalyi (1986, 1988) and Toscano (1986). helped organize life as a unified activity, potentially suited to provide flow experience for those who followed them, is described in I. Csikszentmihalyi (1986, 1988) and Toscano (1986).

A brief introduction to Patanjali's Yoga Yoga can be found in the can be found in the Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica (1985, vol. 12, p. 846). Eliade (1969) provides a more thorough immersion in the subject. (1985, vol. 12, p. 846). Eliade (1969) provides a more thorough immersion in the subject.

Some of the most powerful contemporary insights on the psychology of aesthetics aesthetics are in the works of Arnheim (1954, 1971, 1982) and Gombrich (1954, 1979), who stress the role of order (or negative entropy) in art. For more psychoa.n.a.lytically oriented approaches, see the three volumes edited by Mary Gedo, are in the works of Arnheim (1954, 1971, 1982) and Gombrich (1954, 1979), who stress the role of order (or negative entropy) in art. For more psychoa.n.a.lytically oriented approaches, see the three volumes edited by Mary Gedo, Psychoa.n.a.lytic Perspectives on Art Psychoa.n.a.lytic Perspectives on Art (1986, 1987, 1988). (1986, 1987, 1988).

"There is that wonderful..." is from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press). is from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press).

"When I see works..." and and "On a day like this..." "On a day like this..." are from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press). are from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press).

The use of music by the pygmies use of music by the pygmies is described in Turnbull (1961). is described in Turnbull (1961).

The importance of music importance of music in the lives of Americans is mentioned in in the lives of Americans is mentioned in The Meaning of Things The Meaning of Things (Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton 1981), where it was found that for teenagers the most important object in the home tended to be the stereo set. The (Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton 1981), where it was found that for teenagers the most important object in the home tended to be the stereo set. The policeman's policeman's interview is also from the same source. How music helps teenagers recover their good moods and its role in providing a matrix of peer solidarity are discussed in Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984) and Larson & Kubey (1983). interview is also from the same source. How music helps teenagers recover their good moods and its role in providing a matrix of peer solidarity are discussed in Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984) and Larson & Kubey (1983).

Recorded music makes life richer. I heard this argument propounded most forcefully (but, I think, quite erroneously) by the aesthetic philosopher Eliseo Vivas at a public lecture in Lake Forest College, Illinois, sometime in the late 1960s. I heard this argument propounded most forcefully (but, I think, quite erroneously) by the aesthetic philosopher Eliseo Vivas at a public lecture in Lake Forest College, Illinois, sometime in the late 1960s.

Durkheim developed his concept of "collective effervescence" as a precursor of religiosity in his developed his concept of "collective effervescence" as a precursor of religiosity in his Elementary Forms of Religious Life Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912 [1967]). Victor Turner's "communitas" provides a contemporary perspective on the importance of spontaneous social interaction (1969, 1974). (1912 [1967]). Victor Turner's "communitas" provides a contemporary perspective on the importance of spontaneous social interaction (1969, 1974).

The writings of Carlos Castaneda Carlos Castaneda (e.g., 1971, 1974), so influential even a decade ago, now barely produce a ripple on the collective consciousness. Much has been said to discredit the authenticity of his accounts. The last few volumes of the enduring saga of his sorcerer's apprenticeship seem indeed confused and pointless. But the first four volumes contained many important ideas, intriguingly presented; for these the old Italian saying applies: (e.g., 1971, 1974), so influential even a decade ago, now barely produce a ripple on the collective consciousness. Much has been said to discredit the authenticity of his accounts. The last few volumes of the enduring saga of his sorcerer's apprenticeship seem indeed confused and pointless. But the first four volumes contained many important ideas, intriguingly presented; for these the old Italian saying applies: Se non e vero, e ben trovato Se non e vero, e ben trovato-or, "It may not be true, but it is well conceived."

The stages of musical listening were described in an unpublished empirical study by Michael Heifetz at the University of Chicago. A similar developmental trajectory was postulated earlier by the musicologist Leonard Meyer (1956). were described in an unpublished empirical study by Michael Heifetz at the University of Chicago. A similar developmental trajectory was postulated earlier by the musicologist Leonard Meyer (1956).

Plato expresses his views on music in the expresses his views on music in the Republic Republic, book 3, in the dialogue between Glaucon and Socrates about the aims of education. The idea is that children should not be exposed to either "plaintive" or "relaxed" music, because both will undermine their character-thus Ionian and Lydian harmonies should be eliminated from the curriculum. The only acceptable harmonies are the Dorian and the Phrygian, because these are the "strains of necessity and the strains of freedom," inculcating courage and temperance in the young. Whatever one may think of Plato's taste, it is clear that he took music very seriously. Here is what Socrates says (book 3, p. 401): "And therefore I said, Glaucon, musical training is a more potent instrument than any other, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward place of the soul, on which they mightily fasten, imparting grace, and making the soul of him who is rightly educated graceful...."

Alan Bloom (1987, esp. pp. 6881) provides a spirited defense of Plato and an indictment of modern music, presumably because it has an affinity for Ionian and Lydian harmonies.

Lorin Hollander's story is based on conversations we had in 1985.

Eating. For instance, ESM studies show that of the main things adult Americans do during an average day, eating is the most intrinsically motivated (Graef, Csikszentmihalyi, & Giannino 1983). Teenagers report the second highest levels of positive affect when eating (after socializing with peers, which is the most positive), and very high levels of intrinsic motivation-lower only than listening to music, being involved in sports and games, and resting (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson 1984, p. 300). For instance, ESM studies show that of the main things adult Americans do during an average day, eating is the most intrinsically motivated (Graef, Csikszentmihalyi, & Giannino 1983). Teenagers report the second highest levels of positive affect when eating (after socializing with peers, which is the most positive), and very high levels of intrinsic motivation-lower only than listening to music, being involved in sports and games, and resting (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson 1984, p. 300).

Cyrus the Great. The information comes from Xenophon's (431 The information comes from Xenophon's (431 B.C. B.C.350 B.C. B.C.) Cyropaedia Cyropaedia, a fictional account of Cyrus's life. But Xenophon is the only contemporary who had actually served in Cyrus's army, and who has left a written record of the man and his exploits (see also his Anabasis Anabasis, translated as The Persian Expedition The Persian Expedition, Warner 1965).

Puritans and enjoyment. On this topic see the extensive history by Foster Rhea Dulles (1965), Jane Carson's account of recreation in colonial Virginia (1965), and chapter 5 in Kelly (1982). On this topic see the extensive history by Foster Rhea Dulles (1965), Jane Carson's account of recreation in colonial Virginia (1965), and chapter 5 in Kelly (1982).

CHAPTER 6.

Reading. In the interviews conducted by Professor Ma.s.simini around the world, reading books was the most often mentioned flow activity, especially in traditional groups undergoing modernization (Ma.s.simini, Csikszentmihalyi, & Delle Fave 1988, pp. 7475). See also the study by Nell of how reading provides enjoyment (1988). In the interviews conducted by Professor Ma.s.simini around the world, reading books was the most often mentioned flow activity, especially in traditional groups undergoing modernization (Ma.s.simini, Csikszentmihalyi, & Delle Fave 1988, pp. 7475). See also the study by Nell of how reading provides enjoyment (1988).

Mental puzzles. The Dutch historian Johann Huizinga (1939 [1970]) argued that science and scholarship in general originated in riddling games. The Dutch historian Johann Huizinga (1939 [1970]) argued that science and scholarship in general originated in riddling games.

"Works of art..." is from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press). is from Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson (in press).

The normal state of the mind is chaos. This conclusion is based on various lines of evidence collected with the ESM. For example, of all the things teenagers do, "thinking" is the least intrinsically motivating activity, and one of the highest on negative affect and on pa.s.sivity (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson 1984, p. 300). This is because people say they are thinking only when they are not doing anything else-when there are no external demands on their mind. The same pattern holds for adults, who are least happy and motivated when their mind is not engaged by an externally structured activity (Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi in press). This conclusion is based on various lines of evidence collected with the ESM. For example, of all the things teenagers do, "thinking" is the least intrinsically motivating activity, and one of the highest on negative affect and on pa.s.sivity (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson 1984, p. 300). This is because people say they are thinking only when they are not doing anything else-when there are no external demands on their mind. The same pattern holds for adults, who are least happy and motivated when their mind is not engaged by an externally structured activity (Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi in press).

The various sensory deprivation experiments also show that without patterned input of information, the organization of consciousness tends to break down. For instance, George Miller writes: "The mind survives by ingesting information" (Miller 1983, p. 111). A more general claim is that organisms survive by ingesting negentropy (Schrodinger 1947).

The negative quality of the television viewing television viewing experience has been doc.u.mented by several ESM studies, e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Kubey (1981), Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984), Csikszentmihalyi, Larson, & Prescott (1977), Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi (in press), and Larson & Kubey (1983). experience has been doc.u.mented by several ESM studies, e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Kubey (1981), Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1984), Csikszentmihalyi, Larson, & Prescott (1977), Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi (in press), and Larson & Kubey (1983).

Mental imagery. For some of Singer's work on daydreaming, see Singer (1966, 1973, 1981) and Singer & Switzer (1980). In the last decade, a widespread "mental imagery" movement has developed in the U.S. For some of Singer's work on daydreaming, see Singer (1966, 1973, 1981) and Singer & Switzer (1980). In the last decade, a widespread "mental imagery" movement has developed in the U.S.

The Bunuel Bunuel reference is from Sacks (1970 [1987], p. 23). reference is from Sacks (1970 [1987], p. 23).

Reciting names of ancestors. Generally, the task of remembering belongs to the elder members of the tribe, and sometimes it is a.s.signed to the chief. For example: "The Melanesian chief...has no administrative work, he has no function, properly speaking.... But in him...are enclosed the clan's myth, tradition, alliances, and strengths.... When he delivers from his own lips the clan names and the marvelous phrases which have moved generations, he enlarges time for each one.... The chief's authority rests on a simple quality which is his alone: he himself is the Word of the clan" (Leenhardt 1947 [1979], pp. 11718). One example of how complex kinship reckoning can be is ill.u.s.trated by Evans-Pritchard's work on the Nuer of the Sudan, who divide their ancestors in maximal, major, minor, and minimal lineages, all connecting to each other for five or six ascending generations (Evans-Pritchard 1940 [1978]). Generally, the task of remembering belongs to the elder members of the tribe, and sometimes it is a.s.signed to the chief. For example: "The Melanesian chief...has no administrative work, he has no function, properly speaking.... But in him...are enclosed the clan's myth, tradition, alliances, and strengths.... When he delivers from his own lips the clan names and the marvelous phrases which have moved generations, he enlarges time for each one.... The chief's authority rests on a simple quality which is his alone: he himself is the Word of the clan" (Leenhardt 1947 [1979], pp. 11718). One example of how complex kinship reckoning can be is ill.u.s.trated by Evans-Pritchard's work on the Nuer of the Sudan, who divide their ancestors in maximal, major, minor, and minimal lineages, all connecting to each other for five or six ascending generations (Evans-Pritchard 1940 [1978]).

Riddles. The rhyme translated by Charlotte Guest, as well as the material on the following page, come from the famous account Robert Graves (1960) gives of the origins of poetry and literacy in The rhyme translated by Charlotte Guest, as well as the material on the following page, come from the famous account Robert Graves (1960) gives of the origins of poetry and literacy in The White G.o.ddess The White G.o.ddess. Graves belonged to that wonderful period of British academic life when serious scholarship coexisted with unfettered flights of the imagination-the period when C. S. Lewis and R. R. Tolkien taught cla.s.sics and wrote science fiction at Oxford. Graves's mythopoetic reconstructions are controversial, but they provide the layperson with a feeling for what the quality of thought and experience might have been in the distant past, to an extent that one cannot get from works of more cautious scholarship.

Rote learning. H. E. Garrett (1941) has reviewed the experimental evidence that contributed to the demise of rote learning in schools; see also Suppies (1978). This evidence showed that learning nonsense syllables did not improve a generalized apt.i.tude for remembering. It is difficult to understand why educators would have thought such results relevant to making students stop memorizing meaningful texts. H. E. Garrett (1941) has reviewed the experimental evidence that contributed to the demise of rote learning in schools; see also Suppies (1978). This evidence showed that learning nonsense syllables did not improve a generalized apt.i.tude for remembering. It is difficult to understand why educators would have thought such results relevant to making students stop memorizing meaningful texts.

The control of memory. Remembering, like dreaming, seems not to be a process under volitional control of the self-we cannot bring into consciousness information that refuses to be called up. But just as with dreaming-except even more so-if one is willing to invest energy in it, memory can be greatly improved. With a little method and discipline, it is possible to build a whole set of mnemonic devices to help remember material that otherwise would be forgotten. For a recent review of how some of these methods were used in antiquity and the Renaissance, see Spence (1984). Remembering, like dreaming, seems not to be a process under volitional control of the self-we cannot bring into consciousness information that refuses to be called up. But just as with dreaming-except even more so-if one is willing to invest energy in it, memory can be greatly improved. With a little method and discipline, it is possible to build a whole set of mnemonic devices to help remember material that otherwise would be forgotten. For a recent review of how some of these methods were used in antiquity and the Renaissance, see Spence (1984).

The reference to Archytas Archytas and his thought experiments is from de Santillana (1961 [1970], p. 63). and his thought experiments is from de Santillana (1961 [1970], p. 63).

The evolution of arithmetic and geometry. Wittfogel (1957) gives a brilliant materialist account of the development of the sciences (as well as political forms) on the basis of the prior development of irrigational techniques. Wittfogel (1957) gives a brilliant materialist account of the development of the sciences (as well as political forms) on the basis of the prior development of irrigational techniques.

That new cultural products new cultural products are developed more for the sake of enjoyment than out of necessity is argued in Csikszentmihalyi (1988). This seems to be true even in the introduction of such basic techniques as the use of metals: "In several areas of the world it has been noted, in the case of metallurgical innovation in particular, that the development of bronze and other metals as useful commodities was a much later phenomenon than their first utilization as new and attractive materials, employed in contexts of display.... In most cases early metallurgy appears to have been practiced primarily because products have novel properties that made them attractive to use as symbols and as personal adornments and ornaments, in a manner that, by focusing attention, could attract or enhance prestige" (Renfrew 1986, pp. 144, 146). are developed more for the sake of enjoyment than out of necessity is argued in Csikszentmihalyi (1988). This seems to be true even in the introduction of such basic techniques as the use of metals: "In several areas of the world it has been noted, in the case of metallurgical innovation in particular, that the development of bronze and other metals as useful commodities was a much later phenomenon than their first utilization as new and attractive materials, employed in contexts of display.... In most cases early metallurgy appears to have been practiced primarily because products have novel properties that made them attractive to use as symbols and as personal adornments and ornaments, in a manner that, by focusing attention, could attract or enhance prestige" (Renfrew 1986, pp. 144, 146).

Huizinga (1939 [1970]) argued that inst.i.tutions such as religion, law, government, and the armed forces originally started as play-forms, or games, and only gradually did they become rigid and serious. Similarly Max Weber (1930 [1958]) pointed out that capitalism started as an adventurous game of entrepreneurs, and only later, when its practices became rigidified in laws and conventions, did it become an "iron cage."

For the anecdotes concerning Democritus, Democritus, see de Santillana (1961 [1970], pp. 142ff.) see de Santillana (1961 [1970], pp. 142ff.) For an introduction to the sagas of Iceland, sagas of Iceland, see Skuli Johnson's (1930) collection. see Skuli Johnson's (1930) collection.

The argument about how conversation conversation helps maintain the symbolic universe is in Berger & Luckmann (1967). helps maintain the symbolic universe is in Berger & Luckmann (1967).

How poetry poetry can be taught to ghetto children and to old people in retirement homes without formal education is beautifully told by Koch (1970, 1977). can be taught to ghetto children and to old people in retirement homes without formal education is beautifully told by Koch (1970, 1977).

Writing and depression. At least since the Romantic era, artists of all types have been held to be "tortured" or "demonically impelled." There is reasonably good evidence that many modern artists and writers in fact show a variety of depressive and obsessive symptoms (see, e.g., Alvarez 1973, Berman 1988, Csikszentmihalyi 1988, and Matson 1980). Recently much has been written also about the relationship of manic depression and literary creativity (Andreasen 1987, Richards et al. 1988). It is very likely, however, that this relationship between psychic entropy and artistic creativity is the result of specific cultural expectations, and of the awkward structure of the artistic role, rather than anything necessarily inherent in art or in creativity. In other words, if to survive as an artist in a given social environment a person has to put up with insecurity, neglect, ridicule, and a lack of commonly shared expressive symbols, he or she is likely to show the psychic effects of these adverse conditions. Vasari in 1550 was one of the first to express concern that the personality of the young Italian artists of the time, already influenced by Mannerism, a precursor of Baroque and Romantic styles, displayed a "certain element of savagery and madness" which made them appear "strange and eccentric" in a way that previous artists were not (Vasari 1550 [1959], p. 232). In earlier periods, such as the thousands of years of Egyptian civilization, or the Middle Ages, artists were apparently quite pleasant and well adjusted (Hauser 1951). And of course there are several more recent examples of great artists, like J. S. Bach, Goethe, d.i.c.kens, or Verdi, that disprove the existence of a necessary link between creativity and neurosis. At least since the Romantic era, artists of all types have been held to be "tortured" or "demonically impelled." There is reasonably good evidence that many modern artists and writers in fact show a variety of depressive and obsessive symptoms (see, e.g., Alvarez 1973, Berman 1988, Csikszentmihalyi 1988, and Matson 1980). Recently much has been written also about the relationship of manic depression and literary creativity (Andreasen 1987, Richards et al. 1988). It is very likely, however, that this relationship between psychic entropy and artistic creativity is the result of specific cultural expectations, and of the awkward structure of the artistic role, rather than anything necessarily inherent in art or in creativity. In other words, if to survive as an artist in a given social environment a person has to put up with insecurity, neglect, ridicule, and a lack of commonly shared expressive symbols, he or she is likely to show the psychic effects of these adverse conditions. Vasari in 1550 was one of the first to express concern that the personality of the young Italian artists of the time, already influenced by Mannerism, a precursor of Baroque and Romantic styles, displayed a "certain element of savagery and madness" which made them appear "strange and eccentric" in a way that previous artists were not (Vasari 1550 [1959], p. 232). In earlier periods, such as the thousands of years of Egyptian civilization, or the Middle Ages, artists were apparently quite pleasant and well adjusted (Hauser 1951). And of course there are several more recent examples of great artists, like J. S. Bach, Goethe, d.i.c.kens, or Verdi, that disprove the existence of a necessary link between creativity and neurosis.

Remembering the personal past. In part under the influence of Erikson's psychobiographical accounts of the lives of Hitler, Gorki, Luther, and Gandhi (1950, 1958, 1969), a concern for "personal narrative" has become prominent in life-span developmental psychology (see Cohler 1982; Freeman 1989; Gergen & Gergen 1983, 1984; McAdams 1985; Robinson 1988; Sarbin 1986; and Schafer 1980). This perspective claims that knowing how a person sees his or her own past is one of the best ways to predict what he or she will do in the future. In part under the influence of Erikson's psychobiographical accounts of the lives of Hitler, Gorki, Luther, and Gandhi (1950, 1958, 1969), a concern for "personal narrative" has become prominent in life-span developmental psychology (see Cohler 1982; Freeman 1989; Gergen & Gergen 1983, 1984; McAdams 1985; Robinson 1988; Sarbin 1986; and Schafer 1980). This perspective claims that knowing how a person sees his or her own past is one of the best ways to predict what he or she will do in the future.

Every home a museum. Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton (1981) studied over 300 members of three-generational families around Chicago, who were asked in their homes to show interviewers their favorite objects, and to explain the reasons for cherishing them. Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton (1981) studied over 300 members of three-generational families around Chicago, who were asked in their homes to show interviewers their favorite objects, and to explain the reasons for cherishing them.

The four quotations from Thomas Kuhn Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) are from pages 24, 38, 38, and 36, respectively. One of the most exciting promises of flow theory is that it may help explain why certain ideas, practices, and products are adopted, while others are ignored or forgotten-since at this point the histories of ideas, inst.i.tutions, and cultures work almost exclusively within a paradigm informed by economic determinism. In addition, it might be revealing to consider how history is directed by the enjoyment people derive or antic.i.p.ate from different courses of action. A beginning in that direction is Isabella Csikszentmihalyi's a.n.a.lysis of the reasons for the success of the Jesuit order in the 16th and 17th centuries (1988). (1962) are from pages 24, 38, 38, and 36, respectively. One of the most exciting promises of flow theory is that it may help explain why certain ideas, practices, and products are adopted, while others are ignored or forgotten-since at this point the histories of ideas, inst.i.tutions, and cultures work almost exclusively within a paradigm informed by economic determinism. In addition, it might be revealing to consider how history is directed by the enjoyment people derive or antic.i.p.ate from different courses of action. A beginning in that direction is Isabella Csikszentmihalyi's a.n.a.lysis of the reasons for the success of the Jesuit order in the 16th and 17th centuries (1988).

Breakthroughs. It would go against the central message of this book to claim that the flow experience is "good for you" in the sense that it helps people achieve scientific or any other kind of success. It needs to be stressed again and again that what counts is the quality of experience flow provides, and that this is more important for achieving happiness than riches or fame. At the same time, it would be disingenuous to ignore the fact that successful people tend to enjoy what they do to an unusual extent. This may indicate that people who enjoy what they are doing will do a good job of it (although, as we know, correlation does not imply causation). A long time ago, Maurice Schlick (1934) pointed out how important enjoyment was in sustaining scientific creativity. In an interesting recent study, B. Eugene Griessman interviewed a potpourri of high achievers ranging from Francis H. C. Crick, the codiscoverer of the double helix, to Hank Aaron, Julie Andrews, and Ted Turner. Fifteen of these celebrities completed a questionnaire in which they rated the importance of thirty-three personal characteristics, such as creativity, competence, and breadth of knowledge, in terms of helping them achieve success. The item most strongly endorsed (for an average of 9.86 on a 10-point scale) was enjoyment of work (Griessman 1987, pp. 29495). It would go against the central message of this book to claim that the flow experience is "good for you" in the sense that it helps people achieve scientific or any other kind of success. It needs to be stressed again and again that what counts is the quality of experience flow provides, and that this is more important for achieving happiness than riches or fame. At the same time, it would be disingenuous to ignore the fact that successful people tend to enjoy what they do to an unusual extent. This may indicate that people who enjoy what they are doing will do a good job of it (although, as we know, correlation does not imply causation). A long time ago, Maurice Schlick (1934) pointed out how important enjoyment was in sustaining scientific creativity. In an interesting recent study, B. Eugene Griessman interviewed a potpourri of high achievers ranging from Francis H. C. Crick, the codiscoverer of the double helix, to Hank Aaron, Julie Andrews, and Ted Turner. Fifteen of these celebrities completed a questionnaire in which they rated the importance of thirty-three personal characteristics, such as creativity, competence, and breadth of knowledge, in terms of helping them achieve success. The item most strongly endorsed (for an average of 9.86 on a 10-point scale) was enjoyment of work (Griessman 1987, pp. 29495).

Another indication of how flow may be linked to success is suggested by the work of Larson (1985, 1988). In a study of high school juniors writing a month-long a.s.signment, he found that the students who were bored wrote essays expert English teachers found boring, students who were anxious wrote disconnected essays that were confusing to read, whereas students who enjoyed the writing task created essays that were enjoyable to read-this controlling for differences in intelligence or ability among the students. The obvious suggestion is that a person who experiences flow in an activity will end up with a product that others will find more valuable.

The interview with the wife of Susumu Tonegawa Susumu Tonegawa appeared in appeared in USA Today USA Today (Oct. 13, 1987, p. 2A). (Oct. 13, 1987, p. 2A).

The amazing variety of things adults learn things adults learn in their free time is described in the investigations of Allen Tough (1978); see also Gross (1982). One of the areas of knowledge to which laypersons continue to contribute is that concerning health. One keeps hearing how people (often mothers) will notice some peculiarities in the health patterns of members of their family, which when communicated to health experts turn out to have beneficial consequences. For example Berton Roueche (1988) reports how a woman in New England, struck by the fact that her son and many of his friends were suffering from arthritic pains in the knee, alerted doctors of this suspicious coincidence, and as a result of her information researchers "discovered" Lyme disease, a potentially serious affliction transmitted by ticks. in their free time is described in the investigations of Allen Tough (1978); see also Gross (1982). One of the areas of knowledge to which laypersons continue to contribute is that concerning health. One keeps hearing how people (often mothers) will notice some peculiarities in the health patterns of members of their family, which when communicated to health experts turn out to have beneficial consequences. For example Berton Roueche (1988) reports how a woman in New England, struck by the fact that her son and many of his friends were suffering from arthritic pains in the knee, alerted doctors of this suspicious coincidence, and as a result of her information researchers "discovered" Lyme disease, a potentially serious affliction transmitted by ticks.

It may be presumptuous to present a "reading list" of the great philosophers, philosophers, but to simply name them without a reference would also offend professional scruples. So here goes. A few of the most seminal works in each area might include the following. As to ontology, there are Christian von Wolff's but to simply name them without a reference would also offend professional scruples. So here goes. A few of the most seminal works in each area might include the following. As to ontology, there are Christian von Wolff's Vernunftige Gedanken Vernunftige Gedanken, Kant's Critique of Pure Reason Critique of Pure Reason, Husserl's Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, and Heidegger's Being and Time Being and Time (1962); for these last two, it might be a good idea to start with the introductions to Husserl by Kohak (1978) and by Kolakowski (1987), and to Heidegger by George Steiner (1978 [1987]). In terms of ethics, one would certainly wish to tackle Aristotle's (1962); for these last two, it might be a good idea to start with the introductions to Husserl by Kohak (1978) and by Kolakowski (1987), and to Heidegger by George Steiner (1978 [1987]). In terms of ethics, one would certainly wish to tackle Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Ethics; Aquinas's treatises on Human Acts, on Habits, and on the Active and Contemplative Life in the Summa Theologica Summa Theologica; Benedict Spinoza's Ethics Ethics; and from Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil Beyond Good and Evil and and Genealogy of Morals Genealogy of Morals. In aesthetics, Alexander Baumgarten's "Reflections on Poetry," Benedetto Croce's Aesthetics Aesthetics, Santayana's The Sense of Beauty The Sense of Beauty, and Collingwood's The Principles of Art The Principles of Art. The 54-volume series of the Great Books of the Western World Great Books of the Western World, now edited by Mortimer Adler and published by the Encyclopaedia Britannica, is a good introduction to the most influential thinkers of our culture-the first two Syntopicon Syntopicon volumes, which contain a summary of the main ideas of the books that follow, could be especially useful to the amateur philosopher. volumes, which contain a summary of the main ideas of the books that follow, could be especially useful to the amateur philosopher.

Medvedev (1971) provides an informed account of how the agricultural policies of Lysenko, Lysenko, based on Leninist dogma, resulted in food shortages in Soviet Russia. See also Lecourt (1977). based on Leninist dogma, resulted in food shortages in Soviet Russia. See also Lecourt (1977).

CHAPTER 7.

For the time budget allocated to work by preliterate people, work by preliterate people, see the excellent volume by Marshall Sahlins (1972) and the estimates of Lee (1975). Some glimpses of the working patterns of medieval Europe are to be found in Le Goff (1980) and Le Roy Ladurie (1979). The pattern of the working day of typical English workers before and after the advent of the Industrial Revolution is reconstructed by E. P. Thompson (1963). The changing role of women as workers in the public sector is discussed by, among others, Clark (1919) and Howell (1986). see the excellent volume by Marshall Sahlins (1972) and the estimates of Lee (1975). Some glimpses of the working patterns of medieval Europe are to be found in Le Goff (1980) and Le Roy Ladurie (1979). The pattern of the working day of typical English workers before and after the advent of the Industrial Revolution is reconstructed by E. P. Thompson (1963). The changing role of women as workers in the public sector is discussed by, among others, Clark (1919) and Howell (1986).

Serafina Vinon is one of the respondents in the groups studied by Delle Fave and Ma.s.simini (1988). Her quote is one of the respondents in the groups studied by Delle Fave and Ma.s.simini (1988). Her quote "It gives me great satisfaction..." "It gives me great satisfaction..." is from p. 203. is from p. 203.

The quote "I am free..." "I am free..." is from ibid. is from ibid.

Development and complexity. While most developmental psychology has remained determinedly value-free (at least in its rhetoric, if not in its substance), the psychology department at Clark University has maintained a relatively strong value orientation in its approach to human development, based on the notion that complexity is the goal of human growth (e.g., Kaplan 1983, Werner 1957, Werner & Kaplan 1956). For recent attempts in the same direction see Robinson (1988) and Freeman & Robinson (in press). While most developmental psychology has remained determinedly value-free (at least in its rhetoric, if not in its substance), the psychology department at Clark University has maintained a relatively strong value orientation in its approach to human development, based on the notion that complexity is the goal of human growth (e.g., Kaplan 1983, Werner 1957, Werner & Kaplan 1956). For recent attempts in the same direction see Robinson (1988) and Freeman & Robinson (in press).

"Ting was cutting up..." is in Watson (1964, p. 46), who translated Chuang Tzu's Inner Chapters. is in Watson (1964, p. 46), who translated Chuang Tzu's Inner Chapters.

Some critics. The criticism that flow describes an exclusively Western state of mind was one of the first to be leveled at the flow concept. The specific contrast between flow and The criticism that flow describes an exclusively Western state of mind was one of the first to be leveled at the flow concept. The specific contrast between flow and Yu Yu was brought out by Sun (1987). It is to be hoped that the ample cross-cultural evidence presented in Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi (1988) will rea.s.sure skeptics that the flow experience is reported in almost exactly the same terms in vastly different non-Western cultures. was brought out by Sun (1987). It is to be hoped that the ample cross-cultural evidence presented in Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi (1988) will rea.s.sure skeptics that the flow experience is reported in almost exactly the same terms in vastly different non-Western cultures.

"However..." is from Watson (1964, p. 97). Waley (1939, p. 39) is the scholar who thinks the quotation does not describe is from Watson (1964, p. 97). Waley (1939, p. 39) is the scholar who thinks the quotation does not describe Yu Yu, but its opposite; whereas Graham (cited in Crandall 1983) and Watson (1964) believe it describes Ting's own way of butchering, and therefore that it refers to Yu Yu.

Navajos. Interviews with Navajo shepherds were conducted by Professor Ma.s.simini's group in the summers of 1984 and 1985. Interviews with Navajo shepherds were conducted by Professor Ma.s.simini's group in the summers of 1984 and 1985.

The life of 17th- and 18th-century English weavers English weavers is described by E. P. Thompson (1963). is described by E. P. Thompson (1963).