Flying Machines: construction and operation Part 10

Comparison With Aeroplanes.

If we compare the bird figures with those made possible by the development of the aeroplane it will be readily seen that man has made a wonderful advance in imitating the results produced by nature. Here are the figures:

Supporting Weight Surface Horse area Machine in lbs. in sq. feet power per lb.

Santos-Dumont.. 350 110.00 30 0.314 Bleriot..... 700 150.00 25 0.214 Antoinette.... 1,200 538.00 50 0.448 Curtiss..... 700 258.00 60 0.368 Wright.....[4] 1,100 538.00 25 0.489 Farman...... 1,200 430.00 50 0.358 Voisin...... 1,200 538.00 50 0.448

While the average supporting surface is in favor of the aeroplane, this is more than overbalanced by the greater amount of horsepower required for the weight lifted. The average supporting surface in birds is about three-quarters of a square foot per pound. In the average aeroplane it is about one-half square foot per pound. On the other hand the average aeroplane has a lifting capacity of 24 pounds per horsepower, while the buzzard, for instance, lifts 5 pounds with 15-100 of a horsepower.

If the Wright machine--which has a lifting power of 50 pounds per horsepower--should be alone considered the showing would be much more favorable to the aeroplane, but it would not be a fair comparison.

More Surface, Less Power.

Broadly speaking, the larger the supporting area the less will be the power required. Wright, by the use of 538 square feet of supporting surface, gets along with an engine of 25 horsepower. Curtiss, who uses only 258 square feet of surface, finds an engine of 50 horsepower is needed. Other things, such as frame, etc., being equal, it stands to reason that a reduction in the area of supporting surface will correspondingly reduce the weight of the machine. Thus we have the Curtiss machine with its 258 square feet of surface, weighing only 600 pounds (without operator), but requiring double the horsepower of the Wright machine with 538 square feet of surface and weighing 1,100 pounds. This demonstrates in a forceful way the proposition that the larger the surface the less power will be needed.

But there is a limit, on account of its bulk and awkwardness in handling, beyond which the surface area cannot be enlarged. Otherwise it might be possible to equip and operate aeroplanes satisfactorily with engines of 15 horsepower, or even less.

The Fuel Consumption Problem.

Fuel consumption is a prime factor in the production of engine power.

The veriest mechanical tyro knows in a general way that the more power is secured the more fuel must be consumed, allowing that there is no difference in the power-producing qualities of the material used. But few of us understand just what the ratio of increase is, or how it is caused. This proposition is one of keen interest in connection with aviation.

Let us cite a problem which will ill.u.s.trate the point quoted: Allowing that it takes a given amount of gasolene to propel a flying machine a given distance, half the way with the wind, and half against it, the wind blowing at one-half the speed of the machine, what will be the increase in fuel consumption?

Increase of Thirty Per Cent.

On the face of it there would seem to be no call for an increase as the resistance met when going against the wind is apparently offset by the propulsive force of the wind when the machine is travelling with it. This, however, is called faulty reasoning. The increase in fuel consumption, as figured by Mr. F. W. Lanchester, of the Royal Society of Arts, will be fully 30 per cent over the amount required for a similar operation of the machine in still air. If the journey should be made at right angles to the wind under the same conditions the increase would be 15 per cent.

In other words Mr. Lanchester maintains that the work done by the motor in making headway against the wind for a certain distance calls for more engine energy, and consequently more fuel by 30 per cent, than is saved by the helping force of the wind on the return journey.

CHAPTER XIV. ABOUT WIND CURRENTS, ETC.

One of the first difficulties which the novice will encounter is the uncertainty of the wind currents. With a low velocity the wind, some distance away from the ground, is ordinarily steady. As the velocity increases, however, the wind generally becomes gusty and fitful in its action. This, it should be remembered, does not refer to the velocity of the machine, but to that of the air itself.

In this connection Mr. Arthur T. Atherholt, president of the Aero Club of Pennsylvania, in addressing the Boston Society of Scientific Research, said:

"Probably the whirlpools of Niagara contain no more erratic currents than the strata of air which is now immediately above us, a fact hard to realize on account of its invisibility."

Changes In Wind Currents.

While Mr. Atherholt's experience has been mainly with balloons it is all the more valuable on this account, as the balloons were at the mercy of the wind and their varying directions afforded an indisputable guide as to the changing course of the air currents. In speaking of this he said:

"In the many trips taken, varying in distance traversed from twenty-five to 900 miles, it was never possible except in one instance to maintain a straight course. These uncertain currents were most noticeable in the Gordon-Bennett race from St. Louis in 1907. Of the nine aerostats competing in that event, eight covered a more or less direct course due east and southeast, whereas the writer, with Major Henry B. Hersey, first started northwest, then north, northeast, east, east by south, and when over the center of Lake Erie were again blown northwest notwithstanding that more favorable winds were sought for at alt.i.tudes varying from 100 to 3,000 meters, necessitating a finish in Canada nearly northeast of the starting point.

"These nine balloons, making landings extending from Lake Ontario, Canada, to Virginia, all started from one point within the same hour.

"The single exception to these roving currents occurred on October 21st, of last year (1909) when, starting from Philadelphia, the wind shifted more than eight degrees, the greatest variation being at the lowest alt.i.tudes, yet at no time was a height of over a mile reached.

"Throughout the entire day the sky was overcast, with a thermometer varying from fifty-seven degrees at 300 feet to forty-four degrees, Fahrenheit at 5,000 feet, at which alt.i.tude the wind had a velocity of 43 miles an hour, in clouds of a cirro-c.u.mulus nature, a landing finally being made near Tannersville, New York, in the Catskill mountains, after a voyage of five and one-half hours.

"I have no knowledge of a recorded trip of this distance and duration, maintained in practically a straight line from start to finish."

This wind disturbance is more noticeable and more difficult to contend with in a balloon than in a flying machine, owing to the bulk and unwieldy character of the former. At the same time it is not conducive to pleasant, safe or satisfactory sky-sailing in an aeroplane. This is not stated with the purpose of discouraging aviation, but merely that the operator may know what to expect and be prepared to meet it.

Not only does the wind change its horizontal course abruptly and without notice, but it also shifts in a vertical direction, one second blowing up, and another down. No man has as yet fathomed the why and wherefore of this erratic action; it is only known that it exists.

The most stable currents will be found from 50 to 100 feet from the earth, provided the wind is not diverted by such objects as trees, rocks, etc. That there are equally stable currents higher up is true, but they are generally to be found at excessive alt.i.tudes.

How a Bird Meets Currents.

Observe a bird in action on a windy day and you will find it continually changing the position of its wings. This is done to meet the varying gusts and eddies of the air so that sustentation may be maintained and headway made. One second the bird is bending its wings, altering the angle of incidence; the next it is lifting or depressing one wing at a time. Still again it will extend one wing tip in advance of the other, or be spreading or folding, lowering or raising its tail.

All these motions have a meaning, a purpose. They a.s.sist the bird in preserving its equilibrium. Without them the bird would be just as helpless in the air as a human being and could not remain afloat.

When the wind is still, or comparatively so, a bird, having secured the desired alt.i.tude by flight at an angle, may sail or soar with no wing action beyond an occasional stroke when it desires to advance. But, in a gusty, uncertain wind it must use its wings or alight somewhere.

Trying to Imitate the Bird.

Writing in _Fly_, Mr. William E. White says:

"The bird's flight suggests a number of ways in which the equilibrium of a mechanical bird may be controlled. Each of these methods of control may be effected by several different forms of mechanism.

"Placing the two wings of an aeroplane at an angle of three to five degrees to each other is perhaps the oldest way of securing lateral balance. This way readily occurs to anyone who watches a sea gull soaring. The theory of the dihedral angle is that when one wing is lifted by a gust of wind, the air is spilled from under it; while the other wing, being correspondingly depressed, presents a greater resistance to the gust and is lifted restoring the balance. A fixed angle of three to five degrees, however, will only be sufficient for very light puffs of wind and to mount the wings so that the whole wing may be moved to change the dihedral angle presents mechanical difficulties which would be better avoided.

"The objection of mechanical impracticability applies to any plan to preserve the balance by shifting weight or ballast. The center of gravity should be lower than the center of the supporting surfaces, but cannot be made much lower. It is a common mistake to a.s.sume that complete stability will be secured by hanging the center of gravity very low on the principle of the parachute. An aeroplane depends upon rapid horizontal motion for its support, and if the center of gravity be far below the center of support, every change of speed or wind pressure will cause the machine to turn about its center of gravity, pitching forward and backward dangerously.

Preserving Longitudinal Balance.

"The birds maintain longitudinal, or fore and aft balance, by elevating or depressing their tails. Whether this action is secured in an aeroplane by means of a horizontal rudder placed in the rear, or by deflecting planes placed in front of the main planes, the principle is evidently the same. A horizontal rudder placed well to the rear as in the Antoinette, Bleriot or Santos-Dumont monoplanes, will be very much safer and steadier than the deflecting planes in front, as in the Wright or Curtiss biplanes, but not so sensitive or prompt in action.

"The natural fore and aft stability is very much strengthened by placing the load well forward. The center of gravity near the front and a tail or rudder streaming to the rear secures stability as an arrow is balanced by the head and feathering. The adoption of this principle makes it almost impossible for the aeroplane to turn over.

The Matter of Lateral Balance.

"All successful aeroplanes thus far have maintained lateral balance by the principle of changing the angle of incidence of the wings.

"Other ways of maintaining the lateral balance, suggested by observation of the flight of birds are--extending the wing tips and spilling the air through the pinions; or, what is the same thing, varying the area of the wings at their extremities.

"Extending the wing tips seems to be a simple and effective solution of the problem. The tips may be made to swing outward upon a vertical axis placed at the front edge of the main planes; or they may be hinged to the ends of the main plane so as to be elevated or depressed through suitable connections by the aviator; or they may be supported from a horizontal axis parallel with the ends of the main planes so that they may swing outward, the aviator controlling both tips through one lever so that as one tip is extended the other is retracted.

"The elastic wing pinions of a bird bend easily before the wind, permitting the gusts to glance off, but presenting always an even and efficient curvature to the steady currents of the air."

High Winds Threaten Stability.

To ensure perfect stability, without control, either human or automatic, it is a.s.serted that the aeroplane must move faster than the wind is blowing. So long as the wind is blowing at the rate of 30 miles an hour, and the machine is traveling 40 or more, there will be little trouble as regards equilibrium so far as wind disturbance goes, provided the wind blows evenly and does not come in gusts or eddying currents. But when conditions are reversed--when the machine travels only 30 miles an hour and the wind blows at the rate of 50, look out for loss of equilibrium.

One of the main reasons for this is that high winds are rarely steady; they seldom blow for any length of time at the same speed. They are usually "gusty," the gusts being a momentary movement at a higher speed.

Tornadic gusts are also formed by the meeting of two opposing currents, causing a whirling motion, which makes stability uncertain. Besides, it is not unusual for wind of high speed to suddenly change its direction without warning.