Experimental Researches in Electricity Part 32

1090. The double helix (1053.) was arranged so that it should form the connecting wire between the plates of the electromotor, in being out of the current, and its ends unconnected. In this condition it acted very well, and gave a good spark at the time and place of disjunction. The opposite ends of ii were then connected together so as to form an endless wire, i remaining unchanged: but now _no spark_, or one scarcely sensible, could be obtained from the latter at the place of disjunction. Then, again, the ends of ii were held so nearly together that any current running round that helix should be rendered visible as a spark; and in this manner a spark was obtained from ii when the junction of i with the electromotor was broken, in place of appearing at the disjoined extremity of i itself.

1091. By introducing a galvanometer or decomposing apparatus into the circuit formed by the helix ii, I could easily obtain the deflections and decomposition occasioned by the induced current due to the breaking contact at helix i, or even to that occasioned by making contact of that helix with the electromotor; the results in both cases indicating the contrary directions of the two induced currents thus produced (26.).

1092. All these effects, except those of decomposition, were reproduced by two extended long wires, not having the form of helices, but placed close to each other; and thus it was proved that the _extra current_ could be removed from the wire carrying the original current to a neighbouring wire, and was at the same time identified, in direction and every other respect, with the currents producible by induction (1089.). The case, therefore, of the bright spark and shock on disjunction may now be stated thus: If a current be established in a wire, and another wire, forming a complete circuit, be placed parallel to the first, at the moment the current in the first is stopped it induces a current in the _same_ direction in the second, the first exhibiting then but a feeble spark; but if the second wire be away, disjunction of the first wire induces a current in itself in the same direction, producing a strong spark. The strong spark in the single long wire or helix, at the moment of disjunction, is therefore the equivalent of the current which would be produced in a neighbouring wire if such second current were permitted.

1093. Viewing the phenomena as the results of the induction of electrical currents, many of the principles of action, in the former experiments, become far more evident and precise. Thus the different effects of short wires, long wires, helices, and electro-magnets (1069.) may be comprehended. If the inductive action of a wire a foot long upon a collateral wire also a foot in length, be observed, it will be found very small; but if the same current be sent through a wire fifty feet long, it will induce in a neighbouring wire of fifty feet a far more powerful current at the moment of making or breaking contact, each successive foot of wire adding to the sum of action; and by parity of reasoning, a similar effect should take place when the conducting wire is also that in which the induced current is formed (74.): hence the reason why a long wire gives a brighter spark on breaking contact than a short one (1068.), although it carries much less electricity.

1094. If the long wire be made into a helix, it will then be still more effective in producing sparks and shocks on breaking contact; for by the mutual inductive action of the convolutions each aids its neighbour, and will be aided in turn, and the sum of effect will be very greatly increased.

1095. If an electro-magnet be employed, the effect will be still more highly exalted; because the iron, magnetized by the power of the continuing current, will lose its magnetism at the moment the current ceases to pa.s.s, and in so doing will tend to produce an electric current in the wire around it (37. 38.), in conformity with that which the cessation of current in the helix itself also tends to produce.

1096. By applying the laws of the induction of electric currents formerly developed (6. &c.), various new conditions of the experiments could be devised, which by their results should serve as tests of the accuracy of the view just given. Thus, if a long wire be doubled, so that the current in the two halves shall have opposite actions, it ought not to give a sensible spark at the moment of disjunction: and this proved to be the case, for a wire forty feet long, covered with silk, being doubled and tied closely together to within four inches of the extremities, when used in that state, gave scarcely a perceptible spark; but being opened out and the parts separated, it gave a very good one. The two helices i and ii being joined at their similar ends, and then used at their other extremities to connect the plates of the electromotor, thus const.i.tuted one long helix, of which one half was opposed in direction to the other half: under these circ.u.mstances it gave scarcely a sensible spark, even when the soft iron core was within, although containing nearly two hundred feet of wire. When it was made into one consistent helix of the same length of wire it gave a very bright spark.

1097. Similar proofs can be drawn from the mutual inductive action of two separate currents (1110.); and it is important for the general principles that the consistent action of two such currents should be established.

Thus, two currents going in the same direction should, if simultaneously stopped, aid each other by their relative influence; or if proceeding in contrary directions, should oppose each other under similar circ.u.mstances.

I endeavoured at first to obtain two currents from two different electromotors, and pa.s.sing them through the helices i and ii, tried to effect the disjunctions mechanically at the same moment. But in this I could not succeed; one was always separated before the other, and in that case produced little or no spark, its inductive power being employed in throwing a current round the remaining complete circuit (1090.): the current which was stopped last always gave a bright spark. If it were ever to become needful to ascertain whether two junctions were accurately broken at the same moment, these sparks would afford a test for the purpose, having an infinitesimal degree of perfection.

1098. I was able to prove the points by other expedients. Two short thick wires were selected to serve as terminations, by which contact could be made or broken with the electromotor. The compound helix, consisting of i and ii (1053.), was adjusted so that the extremities of the two helices could be placed in communication with the two terminal wires, in such a manner that the current moving through the thick wires should be divided into two equal portions in the two helices, these portions travelling, according to the mode of connexion, either in the same direction or in contrary directions at pleasure. In this manner two streams could be obtained, both of which could be stopped simultaneously, because the disjunction could be broken at G or F by removing a single wire. When the helices were in contrary directions, there was scarcely a sensible spark at the place of disjunction; but when they were in accordance there was a very bright one.

1099. The helix i was now used constantly, being sometimes a.s.sociated, as above, with helix ii in an according direction, and sometimes with helix iii, which was placed at a little distance. The a.s.sociation i and ii, which presented two currents able to affect each other by induction, because of their vicinity, gave a brighter spark than the a.s.sociation i and iii, where the two streams could not exert their mutual influence; but the difference was not so great as I expected.

1100. Thus all the phenomena tend to prove that the effects are due to an inductive action, occurring at the moment when the princ.i.p.al current is stopped. I at one time thought they were due to an action continued during the _whole time_ of the current, and expected that a steel magnet would have an influence according to its position in the helix, comparable to that of a soft iron bar, in a.s.sisting the effect. This, however, is not the case; for hard steel, or a magnet in the helix, is not so effectual as soft iron; nor does it make any difference how the magnet is placed in the helix, and for very simple reasons, namely, that the effect does not depend upon a permanent state of the core, but a _change of state_; and that the magnet or hard steel cannot sink through such a difference of state as soft iron, at the moment contact ceases, and therefore cannot produce an equal effect in generating a current of electricity by induction (34. 37.).

1101. As an electric current acts by induction with equal energy at the moment of its commencement as at the moment of its cessation (10. 26.), but in a contrary direction, the reference of the effects under examination to an inductive action, would lead to the conclusion that corresponding effects of an opposite nature must occur in a long wire, a helix, or an electro-magnet, every time that _contact is made with_ the electromotor.

These effects will tend to establish a resistance for the first moment in the long conductor, producing a result equivalent to the reverse of a shock or a spark. Now it is very difficult to devise means fit for the recognition of such negative results; but as it is probable that some positive effect is produced at the time, if we knew what to expect, I think the few facts bearing upon this subject with which I am acquainted are worth recording.

1102. The electro-magnet was arranged with an electrolyzing apparatus at _x_, as before described (1084.), except that the intensity of the chemical action at the electromotor was increased until the electric current was just able to produce the feeblest signs of decomposition whilst contact was continued at G and E (1079.); (the iodine of course appearing against the end of the cross wire P;) the wire N was also separated from A at _r_, so that contact there could be made or broken at pleasure. Under these circ.u.mstances the following set of actions was repeated several times: contact was broken at _r_, then broken at G, next made at _r_, and lastly renewed at G; thus any current from N to P due to _breaking_ of contact was avoided, but any additional force to the current from P to N due to _making_ contact could be observed. In this way it was found, that a much greater decomposing effect (causing the evolution of iodine against P) could be obtained by a few completions of contact than by the current which could pa.s.s in a much longer time if the contact was _continued_. This I attribute to the act of induction in the wire ABD at the moment of contact rendering that wire a worse conductor, or rather r.e.t.a.r.ding the pa.s.sage of the electricity through it for the instant, and so throwing a greater quant.i.ty of the electricity which the electromotor could produce, through the cross wire pa.s.sage NP. The instant the induction ceased, ABD resumed its full power of carrying a constant current of electricity, and could have it highly increased, as we know by the former experiments (1060.) by the opposite inductive action brought into activity at the moment contact at Z or C was _broken_.

1103. A galvanometer was then introduced at _x_, and the deflection of the needle noted whilst contact was continued at G and E: the needle was then blocked as before in one direction (1087.), so that it should not return when the current ceased, but remain in the position in which the current could retain it. Contact at G or E was broken, producing of course no visible effect; it was then renewed, and the needle was instantly deflected, pa.s.sing from the blocking pins to a position still further from its natural place than that which the constant current could give, and thus showing, by the temporary excess of current in this cross communication, the temporary r.e.t.a.r.dation in the circuit ABD.

1104. On adjusting a platina wire at _x_ (1081.) so that it should not be ignited by the current pa.s.sing through it whilst contact at G and E was _continued_, and yet become red-hot by a current somewhat more powerful, I was readily able to produce its ignition upon _making contact_, and again upon _breaking contact_. Thus the momentary r.e.t.a.r.dation in ABD on making contact was again shown by this result, as well also as the opposite result upon breaking contact. The two ignitions of the wire at _x_ were of course produced by electric currents moving in opposite directions.

1105. Using the _helix_ only, I could not obtain distinct deflections at _x_, due to the extra effect on making contact, for the reasons already mentioned (1088.). By using a very fine platina wire there (1083.), I did succeed in obtaining the igniting effect for making contact in the same manner, though by no means to the same degree, as with the electro-magnet (1104).

1106. We may also consider and estimate the effect on _making contact_, by transferring the force of induction from the wire carrying the original current to a lateral wire, as in the cases described (1090.); and we then are sure, both by the chemical and galvanometrical results (1091.), that the forces upon making and breaking contact, like action and reaction, are equal in their strength but contrary in their direction. If, therefore, the effect on making contact resolves itself into a mere r.e.t.a.r.dation of the current at the first moment of its existence, it must be, in its degree, equivalent to the high exaltation of that same current at the moment contact is broken.

1107. Thus the case, under the circ.u.mstances, is, that the intensity and quant.i.ty of electricity moving in a current are smaller when the current commences or is increased, and greater when it diminishes or ceases, than they would be if the inductive action occurring at these moments did not take place; or than they are in the original current wire if the inductive action be transferred from that wire to a collateral one (1090.).

1108. From the facility of transference to neighbouring wires, and from the effects generally, the inductive forces appear to be lateral, i.e. exerted in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the originating and produced currents: and they also appear to be accurately represented by the magnetic curves, and closely related to, if not identical with, magnetic forces.

1109. There can be no doubt that the current in one part of a wire can act by induction upon other parts of the _same_ wire which are lateral to the first, i.e. in the same vertical section (74.), or in the parts which are more or less oblique to it (1112.), just as it can act in producing a current in a neighbouring wire or in a neighbouring coil of the same wire.

It is this which gives the appearance of the current acting upon itself: but all the experiments and all a.n.a.logy tend to show that the elements (if I may so say) of the currents do not act upon themselves, and so cause the effect in question, but produce it by exciting currents in conducting matter which is lateral to them.

1110. It is possible that some of the expressions I have used may seem to imply, that the inductive action is essentially the action of one current upon another, or of one element of a current upon another element of the same current. To avoid any such conclusion I must explain more distinctly my meaning. If an endless wire be taken, we have the means of generating a current in it which shall run round the circuit without adding any electricity to what was previously in the wire. As far as we can judge, the electricity which appears as a current is the same as that which before was quiescent in the wire; and though we cannot as yet point out the essential condition of difference of the electricity at such times, we can easily recognize the two states. Now when a current acts by induction upon conducting matter lateral to it, it probably acts upon the electricity in that conducting matter whether it be in the form of a _current_ or _quiescent_, in the one case increasing or diminishing the current according to its direction, in the other producing a current, and the _amount_ of the inductive action is probably the same in both cases. Hence, to say that the action of induction depended upon the mutual relation of two or more currents, would, according to the restricted sense in which the term current is understood at present (283. 517. 667.), be an error.

1111. Several of the effects, as, for instances, those with helices(1066.), with according or counter currents (1097. 1098.), and those on the production of lateral currents (1090.), appeared to indicate that a current could produce an effect of induction in a neighbouring wire more readily than in its own carrying wire, in which case it might be expected that some variation of result would be produced if a bundle of wires were used as a conductor instead of a single wire. In consequence the following experiments were made. A copper wire one twenty-third of an inch in diameter was cut into lengths of five feet each, and six of these being laid side by side in one bundle, had their opposite extremities soldered to two terminal pieces of copper. This arrangement could be used as a discharging wire, but the general current could be divided into six parallel streams, which might be brought close together, or, by the separation of the wires, be taken more or less out of each other's influence. A somewhat brighter spark was, I think, obtained on breaking contact when the six wires were close together than when held asunder.

1112. Another bundle, containing twenty of these wires, was eighteen feet long: the terminal pieces were one-fifth of an inch in diameter, and each six inches long. This was compared with nineteen feet in length of copper wire one-fifth of an inch in diameter. The bundle gave a smaller spark on breaking contact than the latter, even when its strands were held together by string: when they were separated, it gave a still smaller spark. Upon the whole, however, the diminution of effect was not such as I expected: and I doubt whether the results can be considered as any proof of the truth of the supposition which gave rise to them.

1113. The inductive force by which two elements of one current (1109.

1110.) act upon each other, appears to diminish as the line joining them becomes oblique to the direction of the current and to vanish entirely when it is parallel. I am led by some results to suspect that it then even pa.s.ses into the repulsive force noticed by Ampere[A]; which is the cause of the elevations in mercury described by Sir Humphry Davy[B], and which again is probably directly connected with the quality of intensity.

[A] Recueil d'Observations Electro-Dynamiques, p. 285.

[B] Philosophical Transactions, 1823, p. 155.

1114. Notwithstanding that the effects appear only at the making and breaking of contact, (the current remaining unaffected, seemingly, in the interval,) I cannot resist the impression that there is some connected and correspondent effect produced by this lateral action of the elements of the electric stream during the time of its continuance (60. 242.). An action of this kind, in fact, is evident in the magnetic relations of the parts of the current. But admitting (as we may do for the moment) the magnetic forces to const.i.tute the power which produces such striking and different results at the commencement and termination of a current, still there appears to be a link in the chain of effects, a wheel in the physical mechanism of the action, as yet unrecognised. If we endeavour to consider electricity and magnetism as the results of two forces of a physical agent, or a peculiar condition of matter, exerted in determinate directions perpendicular to each other, then, it appears to me, that we must consider these two states or forces as convertible into each other in a greater or smaller degree; i.e. that an element of an electric current has not a determinate electric force and a determinate magnetic force constantly existing in the same ratio, but that the two forces are, to a certain degree, convertible by a process or change of condition at present unknown to us. How else can a current of a given intensity and quant.i.ty be able, by its direct action, to sustain a state which, when allowed to react, (at the cessation of the original current,) shall produce a second current, having an intensity and quant.i.ty far greater than the generating one? This cannot result from a direct reaction of the electric force; and if it result from a change of electrical into magnetic force, and a reconversion back again, it will show that they differ in something more than mere direction, as regards _that agent_ in the conducting wire which const.i.tutes their immediate cause.

1115. With reference to the appearance, at different times, of the contrary effects produced by the making and breaking contact, and their separation by an intermediate and indifferent state, this separation is probably more apparent than real. If the conduction of electricity be effected by vibrations (283.), or by any other mode in which opposite forces are successively and rapidly excited and neutralized, then we might expect a peculiar and contrary development of force at the commencement and termination of the periods during which the conducting action should last (somewhat in a.n.a.logy with the colours produced at the outside of an imperfectly developed solar spectrum): and the intermediate actions, although not sensible in the same way, may be very important and, for instance, perhaps const.i.tute the very essence of conductibility. It is by views and reasons such as these, which seem to me connected with the fundamental laws and facts of electrical science, that I have been induced to enter, more minutely than I otherwise should have done, into the experimental examination of the phenomena described in this paper.

1116. Before concluding, I may briefly remark, that on using a voltaic battery of fifty pairs of plates instead of a single pair (1052.), the effects were exactly of the same kind. The spark on making contact, for the reasons before given, was very small (1101. 1107.); that on breaking contact, very excellent and brilliant. The _continuous_ discharge did not seem altered in character, whether a short wire or the powerful electro-magnet were used as a connecting discharger.

1117. The effects produced at the commencement and end of a current, (which are separated by an interval of time when that current is supplied from a voltaic apparatus,) must occur at the same moment when a common electric discharge is pa.s.sed through a long wire. Whether, if happening accurately at the same moment, they would entirely neutralize each other, or whether they would not still give some definite peculiarity to the discharge, is a matter remaining to be examined; but it is very probable that the peculiar character and pungency of sparks drawn from a long wire depend in part upon the increased intensity given at the termination of the discharge by the inductive action then occurring.

1118. In the wire of the helix of magneto-electric machines, (as, for instance, in Mr. Saxton's beautiful arrangement,) an important influence of these principles of action is evidently shown. From the construction of the apparatus the current is permitted to move in a complete metallic circuit of great length during the first instants of its formation: it gradually rises in strength, and is then suddenly stopped by the breaking of the metallic circuit; and thus great intensity is given _by induction_ to the electricity, which at that moment pa.s.ses (1064. 1060.). This intensity is not only shown by the brilliancy of the spark and the strength of the shock, but also by the necessity which has been experienced of well-insulating the convolutions of the helix, in which the current is formed: and it gives to the current a force at these moments very far above that which the apparatus could produce if the principle which forms the subject of this paper were not called into play.

_Royal Inst.i.tution, December 8th, 1834._

TENTH SERIES.

-- 16. _On an improved form of the Voltaic Battery._ -- 17. _Some practical results respecting the construction and use of the Voltaic Battery._

Received June 16,--Read June 18, 1835.

1119. I Have lately had occasion to examine the voltaic trough practically, with a view to improvements in its construction and use; and though I do not pretend that the results have anything like the importance which attaches to the discovery of a new law or principle, I still think they are valuable, and may therefore, if briefly told, and in connexion with former papers, be worthy the approbation of the Royal Society.

-- 16. _On an improved form of the Voltaic Battery._

1120. In a simple voltaic circuit (and the same is true of the battery) the chemical forces which, during their activity, give power to the instrument, are generally divided into two portions; one of these is exerted locally, whilst the other is transferred round the circle (947. 996.); the latter const.i.tutes the electric current of the instrument, whilst the former is altogether lost or wasted. The ratio of these two portions of power may be varied to a great extent by the influence of circ.u.mstances: thus, in a battery not closed, _all_ the action is local; in one of the ordinary construction, _much_ is in circulation when the extremities are in communication: and in the perfect one, which I have described (1001.), _all_ the chemical power circulates and becomes electricity. By referring to the quant.i.ty of zinc dissolved from the plates (865. 1120.), and the quant.i.ty of decomposition effected in the volta-electrometer (711. 1126,) or elsewhere, the proportions of the local and transferred actions under any particular circ.u.mstances can be ascertained, and the efficacy of the voltaic arrangement, or the waste of chemical power at its zinc plates, be accurately determined.

1121. If a voltaic battery were constructed of zinc and platina, the latter metal surrounding the former, as in the double copper arrangement, and the whole being excited by dilute sulphuric acid, then no insulating divisions of gla.s.s, porcelain or air would be required between the contiguous platina surfaces; and, provided these did not touch metallically, the same acid which, being between the zinc and platina, would excite the battery into powerful action, would, between the two surfaces of platina, produce no discharge of the electricity, nor cause any diminution of the power of the trough. This is a necessary consequence of the resistance to the pa.s.sage of the current which I have shown occurs at the place of decomposition (1007.

1011.); for that resistance is fully able to stop the current, and therefore acts as insulation to the electricity of the contiguous plates, inasmuch as the current which tends to pa.s.s between them never has a higher intensity than that due to the action of a single pair.

1122. If the metal surrounding the zinc be copper (1045.), and if the acid be nitro-sulphuric acid (1020.), then a slight discharge between the two contiguous coppers does take place, provided there be no other channel open by which the forces may circulate; but when such a channel is permitted, the return or back discharge of which I speak is exceedingly diminished, in accordance with the principles laid down in the Eighth Series of these Researches.

1123. Guided by these principles I was led to the construction of a voltaic trough, in which the coppers, pa.s.sing round both surfaces of the zincs, as in Wollaston's construction, should not be separated from each other except by an intervening thickness of paper, or in some other way, so as to prevent metallic contact, and should thus const.i.tute an instrument compact, powerful, economical, and easy of use. On examining, however, what had been done before, I found that the new trough was in all essential respects the same as that invented and described by Dr. Hare, Professor in the University of Pennsylvania, to whom I have great pleasure in referring it.

1124. Dr. Hare has fully described his trough[A]. In it the contiguous copper plates are separated by thin veneers of wood, and the acid is poured on to, or off, the plates by a quarter revolution of an axis, to which both the trough containing the plates, and another trough to collect and hold the liquid, are fixed. This arrangement I have found the most convenient of any, and have therefore adopted it. My zinc plates were cut from rolled metal, and when soldered to the copper plates had the form delineated, fig.

1. These were then bent over a gauge into the form fig. 2, and when packed in the wooden box constructed to receive them, were arranged as in fig.

3[B], little plugs of cork being used to keep the zinc plates from touching the copper plates, and a single or double thickness of cartridge paper being interposed between the contiguous surfaces of copper to prevent them from coming in contact. Such was the facility afforded by this arrangement, that a trough of forty pairs of plates could be unpacked in five minutes, and repacked again in half an hour; and the whole series was not more than fifteen inches in length.