English Villages Part 12

Agnus Dei qui tollis pecata mundi miserere n.o.bis.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PRE-REFORMATION PLATE (1) 13th Century (2) Early 16th Century (3) Elizabethan (4) Ma.n.u.s Dei (5) Vernicle]

The grave of Bishop Grostete at Lincoln yielded up an ancient paten (1230-53), which has the figure of a bishop vested, the right hand raised in the act of blessing, the left holding a crozier. The oldest piece of church plate still in use is a remarkable paten at Wyke Church, near Winchester, the date of which is about 1280. It bears an engraving of the _Agnus Dei_ holding a banner, and around the rim is the legend--

c.u.n.tA: CREO: VIRTUTE: REGO: PIETATE REFORMO.

Another favourite inscription was _Benedicamus patrem et filium c.u.m spiritu sancto_; but on the paten in the church of Great Waltham, Ess.e.x, the important word _spiritu_ is omitted for want of room.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CENSER OR THURIBLE]

We have already mentioned several of the important pieces of church plate which were in use in mediaeval times. Censers, or thuribles, were common in all our ancient parish churches, sometimes of gold or silver, more usually of bra.s.s or latten, and were in the shape of a covered vase or cup, perforated so as to allow the fumes of burning incense to escape. Most of our English censers are now in museums, but several ancient ones are still in use in the private chapels of Roman Catholic families.

Old inventories always mention a pyx, a box or vessel of gold or silver, in which the Host was reserved for the sick and infirm. It often resembles a chalice, except that instead of the bowl there is a covered receptacle for the Host. A beautiful specimen was dug up a few years ago in the churchyard of Yateley, Hants. Another vessel was the monstrance, in which the Blessed Sacrament was carried in procession, and exposed on the altar. The form varied. Sometimes monstrances were made in the shape of a tower, or a covered chalice; sometimes in the form of images carrying silver pyxes, elaborately ornamented with many jewels.

Processions were always a great feature of mediaeval worship; hence the monstrance was frequently in use, especially on such occasions as the celebrations of Corpus Christi Day.

Holy oil was much used in the services, as in the Roman Catholic Church at the present time. It was blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday, and used in Baptism, Confirmation, and Extreme Unction, as well as at the Consecration of Churches, Ordination, and the Coronation of Kings. The vessel for holding the oil was an important piece of church plate, and was called a chrismatory. Usually there were three distinct vessels, one for holding the oil for the sick, a second for use at confirmations, and a third for the baptismal oil. Sometimes these vessels are labelled with the words EXT. UNC., CAT., and CHR., according to the recommendation of St. Charles Borromeo, in order that each oil might be kept for its proper use, and that no confusion might arise.

The pax was a small tablet of silver or other precious metal, used for giving the kiss of peace during High Ma.s.s. The celebrant kissed the tablet, and held it aloft before all the people. It was usually adorned with a representation of the _Agnus Dei_. Of the cruets containing wine and water for the celebration we have already written. Then there was a sacring bell, often made of silver, which was rung during the service at the time of the elevation of the Host, and at the sound the congregation knelt.

We have now examined the aumbry, and noted its contents, upon which the commissioners in the reign of Edward VI. made such shameful inroads.

Henceforth the plate was confined to a chalice and paten, alms-dish, and usually a large silver flagon. The form of the chalice was entirely changed. As we have noticed, the bowl of the pre-Reformation chalices became smaller and shallower, on account of the gradually introduced practice of refusing the wine to the laity. Now in the year 1562 the size of the bowl was greatly enlarged, and the "Communion cup" took the place of the "Ma.s.sing chalice." Some poor parishes were obliged to content themselves with pewter vessels. St. Lawrence's Church, Reading, had a curious bridal cup, which was carried before all brides who were married in that church. The custom of drinking wine in the church at marriages is enjoined in the Hereford Missal, and the Sarum Missal ordered that the bread immersed in the wine, and consumed by the company, should first be blessed by the priest. Some of these post-Reformation vessels are extremely interesting. They record the thankofferings of pious donors on the occasion of some great event in the national annals, such as the Restoration, or of some private mercy vouchsafed to the individual. They record the connection of some family with the parish, the arms they bore; and the Hall marks tell us of their date, which is often anterior to the date of the inscription.

Hall marks were first introduced in 1300 by Edward I. in order to keep up the purity of silver, and consisted of the lion's or leopard's head crowned. This was called the king's mark. The maker's mark was introduced in 1363, and was some initial or badge chosen by the silversmith. To these were added in 1438 the year letter or a.s.sayer's mark, a different letter being chosen for each year. When the alphabet was exhausted, another with differently shaped letters was begun. In 1545 the lion pa.s.sant was introduced, and since 1784 the portrait of the reigning sovereign has appeared. With the a.s.sistance of Mr. Cripps' _Old English Plate_, which contains a list of the alphabets used in marking plate, it is not very difficult to discover the date of any piece of silver. Inventories of church plate are being made in many counties and dioceses, and no more useful work can be undertaken by our local antiquarian societies.

[3] _Mediaeval Chalices and Patens_, by W.H. St. John Hope and T.M. Fallow.

[4] Surtees Society, vol. xv. pp. 45, 49.

CHAPTER XVI

MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES AND BRa.s.sES

Reverence for the dead--Cists--Stone coffins--Devices--Introduction of effigies--Cross-legged effigies--Wooden effigies--Incised effigies--Bra.s.ses--Essentially English--Vast number of bra.s.ses-- Palimpsests--Destruction--Costumes and fashions--Ecclesiastics-- Lawyers--Soldiers--Canopies and inscriptions--Punning inscriptions-- Contractions--Emblems--Heraldry.

The pious care which we all love to bestow on the mortal remains of our nearest and dearest, and the respect and honour with which all men regard the bodies of departed heroes, kings, saints, and warriors, have produced a remarkable series of sepulchral monuments, examples of which may be found everywhere. The cairns and tumuli of the primitive races which inhabited our island were the results of the same feelings of reverent regard which inspired the beautifully carved mediaeval monuments, the memorial bra.s.s, or the cross-shaped tombstone of to-day.

I have already mentioned the cromlechs and barrows and other memorials of the early inhabitants of Britain. We have seen the cists of Saxon times, the coffins formed of several stones placed together in the form of a table. The Normans introduced stone coffins for the sepulchre of their great men, many of which may be seen in our cathedrals and old conventual churches. On the lids of their coffins they frequently cut a single cross. When the style of architecture changed to that of the Early English and Decorated periods, monumental slabs were ornamented with much greater richness and elaboration, and inscriptions were added, and also some device which showed the trade, rank, or profession of the departed. Thus the chalice and paten denoted a priest; a sword showed the knight; an axe, a forester; an ink-horn, a notary; shears, a wool merchant.

At the beginning of the thirteenth century it occurred to someone to preserve the likeness of his departed friend as well as the symbols of his rank and station. So effigies were introduced upon the surface of the slabs, and were carved flat; but ere fifty years had pa.s.sed away the art of the sculptor produced magnificent monumental effigies. Knights and n.o.bles lie clad in armour with their ladies by their sides. Bishops and abbots bless the spectators with their uplifted right hands. Judges lie in their official garb, and merchants with the emblems of their trade. At their feet lie animals, usually having some heraldic connection with the deceased, or symbolical of his work--_e.g._ a dragon is trodden down beneath the feet of a bishop, signifying the defeat of sin as the result of his ministry. The heads of effigies usually rest on cushions, which are sometimes supported by two angels.

A peculiar characteristic of the military effigies in England is that the knights are often represented with the legs crossed. Many speculations have been made with regard to the meaning of this fashion of cross-legged effigy. It is a popular superst.i.tion, in which for some years the writer shared, that such effigies represented Crusaders. We were told in our young days that when the knight had his legs crossed at the feet he had gone to the Crusades once; when at the knees, that he had been to two Crusades; and when crossed at the thighs, he had been thrice to rescue the Holy City from the hands of the infidels. All this seemed very plausible and interesting, but it is undoubtedly a myth.

Many known Crusaders have their effigies with uncrossed legs, and many who never went to the Crusades have cross-legged effigies. Moreover, there are no such monuments in any foreign country which swelled the army of Crusaders. Hence we must abandon the pleasing superst.i.tion, and reconcile ourselves to the fact that no particular signification can be a.s.signed to these cross-legged effigies, and that only fashion prompted the mediaeval sculptors to adopt this att.i.tude for their figures. This mode prevailed until about the year 1320.

At the close of the fifteenth century the art of making monumental effigies degenerated together with the skill of the architects of that period. We see the husband and wife kneeling facing each other, with a faldstool before each figure. A company of small figures below the effigies represent the children, the boys on one side, the girls on the other.

Early wooden effigies were also in use. There is one much battered by the careless hands of former generations of villagers in the rural church of my parish of Barkham. The artists often used much colour, gilding, and enamel in making these effigies; and often rich canopies were erected over them, containing fine tabernacle-work and figures of saints in niches.

Another form of effigy was commonly in use, in addition to the figures just described. These are called incised effigies, which were cut in outline upon flat slabs of stone, the lines being filled in with enamelled metals. Thorton Abbey, Lincolnshire, and Brading, in the Isle of Wight, have examples of this work. But the great expense of these enamels, and also their frailty when exposed in the pavements of churches, led to the use of bra.s.s; and hence arose the introduction of memorial bra.s.ses for which our country is famous.

We owe the application of bra.s.s to memorial tablets to the artists of Flanders, and the date of their introduction is about the middle of the thirteenth century. The execution of almost all of our English bra.s.ses is due to native artists. Foreign bra.s.ses are usually of great size, and consist of a quadrangular sheet of metal, on which is engraved the figure, usually under a canopy, the background being ornamented with rich diaper, foliage, or scrollwork, and the incisions filled with colouring. Several bra.s.ses in England conform to this style of workmanship, and are evidently the production of foreign artists. The English bra.s.ses, on the contrary, consist of separate pieces, with an irregular outline, corresponding with that of the figure. They have no bra.s.s background; and for delicacy of engraving and general appearance the English bra.s.ses are by far the best.

The names of the makers of bra.s.ses have been almost entirely lost. Two only bear marks which are supposed to be those of the engraver. No other country can boast of so large a number of these memorials as England, in spite of the hard usage they have received and their wanton destruction.

About four thousand remain; and constantly we find the matrices cut in stone slabs, from which bra.s.ses have been torn; so that we may a.s.sume that quite as many have been destroyed as those which survive. The southern and eastern counties are most richly furnished with these monuments, whereas the western and northern counties have but few bra.s.ses. Norfolk, Suffolk, Ess.e.x, and Kent are the most rich in this respect. The earliest bra.s.s of which we have any record is that of Simon de Beauchamp, who died before 1208. This is mentioned by Leland.

The earliest bra.s.s now in existence is that of Sir John D'Aubernown at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, which was fashioned in 1277. In the fourteenth century a very large number of bra.s.ses, remarkable for their beauty of form and execution, were made. The artistic workmanship began to decline in the fifteenth century, and in the following became utterly degenerate.

It was not an uncommon practice for subsequent generations to appropriate the memorials of their predecessors. Such bra.s.ses are called palimpsests.

By the carelessness of churchwardens, by fraud, or spoliation, bra.s.ses were taken from the churches, and acquired by some maker in the town.

When a new one was required, the tradesman would take from his stock, and on the reverse engrave the figure of the individual whose memory he was called upon to perpetuate. Hence when bra.s.ses are taken up from the pavements, frequently the remains of a much earlier memorial are found on the reverse side. There is an example of this curious method of procedure at St. Lawrence's Church, Reading, where on the reverse of a bra.s.s to the memory of Walter Barton was found the remains of the bra.s.s of Sir John Popham, who was buried at the Charterhouse, London. This monastery was dissolved in 1536, the monuments sold, Sir John Popham's bra.s.s among them, which was evidently soon converted into a memorial of Walter Barton.

Sometimes the original bra.s.s was appropriated as it lay, the figure being slightly altered to suit the style of costume prevalent at the later date. In other cases the engraver did not even trouble himself to alter the figure, and simply added a new inscription and shield of arms.

The wanton destruction and gross neglect of churchwardens, both before and after the Reformation, were very great. At St. Mary's Church, Reading, the accounts tell a sad tale of the disgraceful damage in the year 1547:--

"Receyvid of John Saunders for iii cwt lacking ix'li of metall that was taken upp of the graves, and of olde candlestycks at vi's the hundred xlvj's ii'd."

Evidently a clean sweep was made of most of the memorial bra.s.ses in the church, and few escaped destruction. The tale is too familiar. Most churches have suffered in the same way.

The study of bra.s.ses throws much light upon the costumes and fashions of the day when they were engraved. We see priests, who may be recognised by the tonsure and vestments, amongst which we find the alb, amice, stole, maniple, and chasuble. The pastoral staff, ring, mitre, sandals, tunic, dalmatic, and gloves mark the graves of bishops and mitred abbots.

A close skull-cap, a long robe with narrow sleeves, a hood, tippet, and mantle b.u.t.toned on the right shoulder, compose the dress of judges and officers of the law, as depicted on bra.s.ses. The changes in the fashion and style of armour, which took place between the fourteenth and the seventeenth centuries, are all accurately represented in these memorials; and also the picturesque costumes of ladies with their curious headgear; and the no less various fashions of the male civilian's dress. A study of bra.s.ses is an admirable guide to the prevailing style of dress during the periods of their construction.

The beautiful canopies over the heads of the figures are well worthy of attention, and also the inscriptions. These usually take the form of Latin verses; and although many were written by learned abbots and scholars, the cla.s.sical knowledge displayed is somewhat faulty. Here are a few examples:--

Respice quid prodest precentis temporis aeb.u.m Omne quod est, nichil est, preter amare deum.

Sometimes the author of the inscription recorded his name, as did the learned Dame Elizabeth Hobby on a bra.s.s at Shottesbrooke, which runs--

O multum dilecte senex, pater atqz bocate, Del quia grandaebis, bel quia probus eras.

Annos bixisti n.o.bies decem, atqz satelles Fidus eras regum, fidus erasqz tuis.

Iam satis functus baleas, sed tu, deus alme, Sic mihi concedas bibere siqz mori.

Variety was added sometimes by jumbling together various languages, Norman-French, Latin, and English being often oddly combined.

People in the Middle Ages loved punning and playing upon the sound of words. Thus a bra.s.s to the memory of Thomas Hylle (or Hill) has some verses beginning "_Mons_ in valle jacet." John Day, the printer, had a very extravagant and jocular epitaph beginning--

"Here lies the Daye that darkness could not blynd."

"He set a Fox to wright how Martyrs runne By death to lyfe"--

alluding to his publication of Foxe's _Book of Martyrs_. His widow probably married a man named Stone. Hence we read--

"Als was the last encreaser of his store, Who mourning long for being left alone, Sett upp this tombe, her self turned to a Stone."