Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health Part 4

That which pa.s.ses down through the land lying between the drains, bears down upon that which has already acc.u.mulated in the soil, and forces it to seek an outlet by rising into the drains.(7) For example, if a barrel, standing on end, be filled with earth which is saturated with water, and its bung be removed, the water of saturation, (that is, all which is not held by attraction _in_ the particles of earth,) will be removed from so much of the ma.s.s as lies above the bottom of the bung-hole. If a bucket of water be now poured upon the top, it will not all run diagonally toward the opening; it will trickle down to the level of the water remaining in the barrel, and this level will rise and water will run off at the bottom of the orifice. In this manner, the water, even below the drainage level, is changed with each addition at the surface. In a barrel filled with coa.r.s.e pebbles, the water of saturation would maintain a nearly level surface; if the material were more compact and retentive, a true level would be attained only after a considerable time. Toward the end of the flow, the water would stand highest at the points furthest distant from the outlet. So, in the land, after a drenching rain, the water is first removed to the full depth, near the line of the drain, and that midway between two drains settles much more slowly, meeting more resistance from below, and, for a long time, will remain some inches higher than the floor of the drain. The usual condition of the soil, (except in very dry weather,) would be somewhat as represented in the accompanying cut, (Fig.

12.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS.]

Fig. 12 - LINE OF SATURATION BETWEEN DRAINS.

_YY are the draings. The curved line b is the line of saturation, which has descended from a, and is approaching c._

To provide for this deviation of the line of saturation, in practice, drains are placed deeper than would be necessary if the water sunk at once to the level of the drain floor, the depth of the drains being increased with the increasing distance between them.

Theoretically, every drop of water which falls on a field should sink straight down to the level of the drains, and force a drop of water below that level to rise into the drain and flow off. How exactly this is true in nature cannot be known, and is not material. Drains made in pursuance of this theory will be effective for any actual condition.

The _depth_ to which the water table should be withdrawn depends, not at all on the character of the soil, but on the requirements of the crops which are to be grown upon it, and these requirements are the same in all soils,-consequently the depth should be the same in all.

What, then, shall that depth be? The usual practice of the most experienced drainers seems to have fixed four feet as about the proper depth, and the arguments against anything less than this, as well as some reasons for supposing that to be sufficient, are so clearly stated by Mr.

Gisborne that it has been deemed best to quote his own words on the subject:

"Take a flower-pot a foot deep, filled with dry soil. Place it in a saucer containing three inches of water. The first effect will be, that the water will rise through the hole in the bottom of the pot till the water which fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the water in the saucer. This effect is by gravity. The upper surface of this water is our water-table. From it water will ascend by attraction through the whole body of soil till moisture is apparent at the surface. Put in your soil at 60, a reasonable summer heat for nine inches in depth, your water at 47, the seven inches' temperature of Mr. Parke's undrained bog; the attracted water will ascend at 47, and will diligently occupy itself in attempting to reduce the 60 soil to its own temperature. Moreover, no sooner will the soil hold water of attraction, than evaporation will begin to carry it off, and will produce the cold consequent thereon. This evaporated water will be replaced by water of attraction at 47, and this double cooling process will go on till all the water in the water-table is exhausted.

Supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears, and then the process will be perpetual. The system of saucer-watering is reprobated by every intelligent gardener; it is found by experience to chill vegetation; besides which, scarcely any cultivated plant can dip its roots into stagnant water with impunity. Exactly the process which we have described in the flower-pot is constantly in operation on an undrained retentive soil; the water-table may not be within nine inches of the surface, but in very many instances it is within a foot or eighteen inches, at which level the cold surplus oozes into some ditch or other superficial outlet. At eighteen inches, attraction will, on the average of soils, act with considerable power. Here, then, you have two obnoxious principles at work, both producing cold, and the one administering to the other. The obvious remedy is, to destroy their _united_ action; to break through their line of communication. Remove your water of attraction to such a depth that evaporation cannot act upon it, or but feebly. What is that depth? In ascertaining this point we are not altogether without data. No doubt depth diminishes the power of evaporation rapidly. Still, as water taken from a 30-inch drain is almost invariably two or three degrees colder than water taken from four feet, and as this latter is generally one or two degrees colder than water from a contiguous well several feet below, we can hardly avoid drawing the conclusion that the cold of evaporation has considerable influence at 30 inches, a much-diminished influence at four feet, and little or none below that depth. If the water-table is removed to the depth of four feet, when we have allowed 18 inches of attraction, we shall still have 30 inches of defence against evaporation; and we are inclined to believe that any prejudicial combined action of attraction and evaporation is thereby well guarded against. The facts stated seem to prove that less will not suffice.

"So much on the score of temperature; but this is not all. Do the roots of esculents wish to penetrate into the earth-at least, to the depth of some feet? We believe that they do. We are sure of the bra.s.sica tribe, of gra.s.s, and clover. All our experience and observation deny the doctrine that roots only ramble when they are stinted of food; that six inches well manured is quite enough, better than more. Ask the Jerseyman; he will show you a parsnip as thick as your thigh, and as long as your leg, and will tell you of the advantages of 14 feet of dry soil. You will hear of parsnips whose roots descend to unsearchable depths. We will not appeal to the Kentucky carrot, which was drawn out by its roots at the antipodes; but Mr. Mechi's, if we remember right, was a dozen feet or more. Three years ago, in a midland county, a field of good land, in good cultivation, and richly manured, produced a heavy crop of cabbages. In November of that year we saw that field broken into in several places, and at the depth of four feet the soil (a tenacious marl, fully stiff enough for brick-earth) was occupied by the roots of cabbage, not sparingly-not mere capillae-but fibres of the size of small pack-thread. A farmer manures a field of four or five inches of free soil reposing on a retentive clay, and sows it with wheat. It comes up, and between the kernel and the manure, it looks well for a time, but anon it sickens. An Irish child looks well for five or six years, but after that time potato-feeding, and filth, and hardship, begin to tell. You ask what is amiss with the wheat, and you are told that when its roots reach the clay, they are poisoned. This field is then thorough-drained, deep, at least four feet. It receives again from the cultivator the previous treatment; the wheat comes up well, maintains throughout a healthy aspect, and gives a good return. What has become of the poison? We have been told that the rain water filtered through the soil has taken it into solution or suspension, and has carried it off through the drains; and men who a.s.sume to be of authority put forward this as one of the advantages of draining. If we believed it, we could not advocate draining. We really should not have the face to tell our readers that water, pa.s.sing through soils containing elements prejudicial to vegetation, would carry them off, but would leave those which are beneficial behind. We cannot make our water so discriminating; the general merit of water of deep drainage is, that it contains very little. Its perfection would be that it should contain nothing. We understand that experiments are in progress which have ascertained that water, charged with matters which are known to stimulate vegetation, when filtered through four feet of retentive soil, comes out pure. But to return to our wheat. In the first case, it shrinks before the cold of evaporation and the cold of water of attraction, and it sickens because its feet are never dry; it suffers the usual maladies of cold and wet. In the second case, the excess of cold by evaporation is withdrawn; the cold water of attraction is removed out of its way; the warm air from the surface, rushing in to supply the place of the water which the drains remove, and the warm summer rains, bearing down with them the temperature which they have acquired from the upper soil, carry a genial heat to its lowest roots. Health, vigorous growth, and early maturity are the natural consequences. * * * * * * * * *

"The practice so derided and maligned referring to deep draining has advanced with wonderful strides. We remember the days of 15 inches; then a step to 20; a stride to 30; and the last (and probably final) jump to 50, a few inches under or over. We have dabbled in them all, generally belonging to the deep section of the day. We have used the words 'probably final,' because the first advances were experimental, and, though they were justified by the results obtained, no one attempted to explain the principle on which benefit was derived from them. The principles on which the now prevailing depth is founded, and which we believe to be true, go far to show that we have attained all the advantages which can be derived from the removal of water in ordinary agriculture. We do not mean that, even in the most retentive soil, water would not get into drains which were laid somewhat deeper; but to this there must be a not very distant limit, because pure clay, lying below the depth at which wet and drought applied at surface would expand and contract it, would certainly part with its water very slowly. We find that, in coal mines and in deep quarries, a stratum of clay of only a few inches thick interposed between two strata of pervious stone will form an effectual bar to the pa.s.sage of water; whereas, if it lay within a few feet of the surface, it would, in a season of heat and drought become as pervious as a cullender. But when we have got rid of the cold arising from the evaporation of free water, have given a range of several feet to the roots of gra.s.s and cereals, and have enabled retentive land to filter through itself all the rain which falls upon its surface, we are not, in our present state of knowledge, aware of any advantage which would arise from further lowering the surface of water in agricultural land. Smith, of Deanston, first called prominent attention to the fertilizing effects of rain filtered through land, and to evils produced by allowing it to flow off the surface. Any one will see how much more effectually this benefit will be attained, and this evil avoided, by a 4-foot than a 2-foot drainage. The latter can only prepare two feet of soil for the reception and retention of rain, which two feet, being saturated, will reject more, and the surplus must run off the surface, carrying whatever it can find with it. A 4-foot drainage will be constantly tending to have four feet of soil ready for the reception of rain, and it will take much more rain to saturate four feet than two.

Moreover, as a gimlet-hole bored four feet from the surface of a barrel filled with water will discharge much more in a given time than a similar hole bored at the depth of two feet, so will a 4-foot drain discharge in a given time much more water than a drain of two feet. One is acted on by a 4-foot, and the other by a 2-foot pressure."

If any single fact connected with tile-drainage is established, beyond all possible doubt, it is that in the stiffest clay soils ever cultivated, drains four feet deep will act effectually; the water will find its way to them, more and more freely and completely, as the drying of successive years, and the penetration and decay of the roots of successive crops, modify the character of the land, and they will eventually be practically so porous that,-so far as the ease of drainage is concerned,-no distinction need, in practice, be made between them and the less retentive loams. For a few years, the line of saturation between the drains, as shown in Fig. 11, may stand at all seasons considerably above the level of the bottom of the tile, but it will recede year by year, until it will be practically level, except immediately after rains.

Mr. Josiah Parkes recommends drains to be laid

"_At a minimum depth of four feet_, designed with the two-fold object of not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and injurious water, but of converting the water falling on the surface into an agent for fertilizing; no drainage being deemed efficient that did not both remove the water falling on the surface, and 'keep down the subterranean water at a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it near the surface.'"

Alderman Mechi says:

"Ask nineteen farmers out of twenty, who hold strong clay land, and they will tell you it is of no use placing deep four-foot drains in such soils-the water cannot get in; a horse's foot-hole (without an opening under it) will hold water like a basin; and so on. Well, five minutes after, you tell the same farmers you propose digging a cellar, well bricked, six or eight feet deep; what is their remark? 'Oh! it's of no use your making an underground cellar in our soil, you _can't keep the water_ OUT!'

Was there ever such an ill.u.s.tration of prejudice as this? What is a drain pipe but a small cellar full of air? Then, again, common sense tells us, you can't keep a light fluid under a heavy one.

You might as well try to keep a cork under water, as to try and keep air under water. 'Oh! but then our soil isn't porous.' If not, how can it hold water so readily? I am led to these observations by the strong controversy I am having with some Ess.e.x folks, who protest that I am mad, or foolish, for placing 1-inch pipes, at four-foot depth, in strong clays. It is in vain I refer to the numerous proofs of my soundness, brought forward by Mr.

Parkes, engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society, and confirmed by Mr. Pusey. They still dispute it. It is in vain I tell them _I cannot keep the rainwater out of_ socketed pipes, twelve feet deep, that convey a spring to my farm yard. Let us try and convince this large cla.s.s of doubters; for it is of _national_ importance. Four feet of good porous clay would afford a far better meal to some strong bean, or other tap roots, than the usual six inches; and a saving of $4 to $5 per acre, in drainage, is no trifle.

"The shallow, or non-drainers, a.s.sume that tenacious subsoils are impervious or non-absorbent. This is entirely an erroneous a.s.sumption. If soils were impervious, how could they get wet?

"I a.s.sert, and pledge my agricultural reputation for the fact, that there are no earths or clays in this kingdom, be they ever so tenacious, that will not readily receive, filter, and transmit rain water to drains placed five or more feet deep.

"A neighbor of mine drained twenty inches deep in strong clay; the ground cracked widely; the contraction destroyed the tiles, and the rains washed the surface soils into the cracks and choked the drains. He has since abandoned shallow draining.

"When I first began draining, I allowed myself to be overruled by my obstinate man, Pearson, who insisted that, for top water, two feet was a sufficient depth in a veiny soil. I allowed him to try the experiment on two small fields; the result was, that nothing prospered; and I am redraining those fields at _one-half_ the cost, five and six feet deep, at intervals of 70 and 80 feet.

"I found iron-sand rocks, strong clay, silt, iron, etc., and an enormous quant.i.ty of water, all _below_ the 2-foot drains. This accounted at once for the sudden check the crops always met with in May, when they wanted to send their roots down, but could not, without going into stagnant water."

"There can be no doubt that it is the _depth_ of the drain which regulates the escape of the surface water in a given time; regard being had, as respects extreme distances, to the nature of the soil, and a due capacity of the pipe. _The deeper the drain, even in the strongest soils, the quicker the water escapes._ This is an astounding but certain fact.

"That deep and distant drains, where a sufficient fall can be obtained, are by far the most profitable, by affording to the roots of the plants a greater range for food."

Of course, where the soil is underlaid by rock, less than four feet from the surface; and where an outlet at that depth cannot be obtained, we must, per force, drain less deeply, but where there exists no such obstacle, drains should be laid at a _general_ depth of four-feet,-general, not uniform, because the drain should have a uniform inclination, which the surface of the land rarely has.

*The Distance between the Drains.*-Concerning this, there is less unanimity of opinion among engineers, than prevails with regard to the question of depth.

In tolerably porous soils, it is generally conceded that 40 or even 50 feet is sufficiently near for 4-foot drains, but, for the more retentive clays, all distances from 18 feet to 50 feet are recommended, though those who belong to the more narrow school are, as a rule, extending the limit, as they see, in practice, the complete manner in which drains at wider intervals perform their work. A careful consideration of the experience of the past twenty years, and of the arguments of writers on drainage, leads to the belief that there are few soils, which need draining at all, on which it will be safe to place 4-foot drains at much wider intervals than 40 feet. In the lighter loams there are many instances of the successful application of Professor Mapes' rule, that "3-foot drains should be placed 20 feet apart, and for each additional foot in depth the distance may be doubled; for instance, 4-foot drains should be 40 feet apart, and 5-foot drains 80 feet apart." But, with reference to the greater distance, (80 feet,) it is not to be recommended in stiff clays, for any depth of drain.

Where it is necessary, by reason of insufficient fall, or of underground rock, to go only three feet deep, the drains should be as near together as 20 feet.

At first thought, it may seem akin to quackery to recommend a uniform depth and distance, without reference to the character of the land to be drained; and it is unquestionably true that an exact adaptation of the work to the varying requirements of different soils would be beneficial, though no system can be adopted which will make clay drain as freely as sand. The fact is, that the adjustment of the distances between drains is very far from partaking of the nature of an exact science, and there is really very little known, by any one, of the principles on which it should be based, or of the manner in which the bearing of those principles, in any particular case, is affected by several circ.u.mstances which vary with each change of soil, inclination and exposure.

In the essays on drainage which have been thus far published, there is a vagueness in the arguments on this branch of the subject, which betrays a want of definite conviction in the minds of the writers; and which tends quite as much to muddle as to enlighten the ideas of the reader. In so far as the directions are given, whether fortified by argument or not, they are clearly empirical, and are usually very much qualified by considerations which weigh with unequal force in different cases.

In laying out work, any skillful drainer will be guided, in deciding the distance between the lines, by a judgment which has grown out of his former experience; and which will enable him to adapt the work, measurably, to the requirements of the particular soil under consideration; but he would probably find it impossible to so state the reasons for his decision, that they would be of any general value to others.

Probably it will be a long time before rules on this subject, based on well sustained _theory_, can be laid down with distinctness, and, in the mean time, we must be guided by the results of practice, and must confine ourselves to a distance which repeated trial, in various soils, has proven to be safe for all agricultural land. In the drainage of the Central Park, after a mature consideration of all that had been published on the subject, and of a considerable previous observation and experience, it was decided to adopt a general depth of four feet, and to adhere as closely as possible to a uniform distance of forty feet. No instance was known of a failure to produce good results by draining at that distance, and several cases were recalled where drains at fifty and sixty feet had proved so inefficient that intermediate lines became necessary. After from seven to ten years' trial, the Central Park drainage, by its results, has shown that,-although some of the land is of a very retentive character,-this distance is not too great; and it is adopted here for recommendation to all who have no especial reason for supposing that greater distances will be fully effective in their more porous soils.

As has been before stated, drains at that distance, (or at any distance,) will not remove all of the water of saturation from heavy clays so rapidly as from more porous soil; but, although, in some cases, the drainage may be insufficient during the first year, and not absolutely perfect during the second and third years, the increased porosity which drainage causes, (as the summer droughts make fissures in the earth, as decayed roots and other organic deposits make these fissures permanent, and as chemical action in the aerated soil changes its character,) will finally bring clay soils to as perfect a condition as they are capable of attaining, and will invariably render them excellent for cultivation.

*The Direction of the Laterals* should be _right up and down the slope of the land_, in the line of steepest descent. For a long time after the general adoption of thorough-draining, there was much discussion of this subject, and much variation in practice. The influence of the old rules for making surface or "catch-water" drains lasted for a long time, and there was a general tendency to make tile drains follow the same directions. An important requirement of these was that they should not take so steep an inclination as to have their bottoms cut out and their banks undermined by the rapid flow of water, and that they should arrest and carry away the water flowing down over the surface of hill sides. The arguments for the line of steepest descent were, however, so clear, and drains laid on that line were so universally successful in practice, that it was long ago adopted by all,-save those novices who preferred to gain their education in draining in the expensive school of their own experience.

The more important reasons why this direction is the best are the following: First, it is the quickest way to get the water off. Its natural tendency is to run straight down the hill, and nothing is gained by diverting it from this course. Second, if the drain runs obliquely down the hill, the water will be likely to run out at the joints of the tile and wet the ground below it; even if it do not, mainly, run past the drain from above into the land below, instead of being forced into the tile.

Third, a drain lying obliquely across a hillside will not be able to draw the water from below up the hill toward it, and the water of nearly the whole interval will have to seek its outlet through the drain below it.

Fourth, drains running directly down the hill will tap any porous water bearing strata, which may crop out, at regular intervals, and will thus prevent the spewing out of the water at the surface, as it might do if only oblique drains ran for a long distance just above or just below them.

Very steep, and very springy hill sides, sometimes require very frequent drains to catch the water which has a tendency to flow to the surface; this, however, rarely occurs.

In laying out a plan for draining land of a broken surface, which inclines in different directions, it is impossible to make the drains follow the line of steepest descent, and at the same time to have them all parallel, and at uniform distances. In all such cases a compromise must be made between the two requirements. The more nearly the parallel arrangement can be preserved, the less costly will the work be, while the more nearly we follow the steepest slope of the ground, the more efficient will each drain be. No rule for this adjustment can be given, but a careful study of the plan of the ground, and of its contour lines, will aid in its determination. On all irregular ground it requires great skill to secure the greatest efficiency consistent with economy.

The _fall_ required in well made tile drains is very much less than would be supposed, by an inexperienced person, to be necessary. Wherever practicable, without too great cost, it is desirable to have a fall of one foot in one hundred feet, but more than this in ordinary work is not especially to be sought, although there is, of course, no objection to very much greater inclination.

One half of that amount of fall, or six inches in one hundred feet, is quite sufficient, if the execution of the work is carefully attended to.

The least rate of fall which it is prudent to give to a drain, in using ordinary tiles, is 2.5 in 1,000, or three inches in one hundred feet, and even this requires very careful work.(8) A fall of six inches in one hundred feet is recommended whenever it can be easily obtained-not as being more effective, but as requiring less precision, and consequently less expense.

*Kinds and Sizes of Tiles.*-Agricultural drain-tiles are made of clay similar to that which is used for brick. When burned, they are from twelve inches to fourteen inches long, with an interior diameter of from one to eight inches, and with a thickness of wall, (depending on the strength of the clay, and the size of the bore,) of from one-quarter of an inch to more than an inch. They are porous, to the extent of absorbing a certain amount of water, but their porosity has nothing to do with their use for drainage,-for this purpose they might as well be of gla.s.s. The water enters them, not through their walls, but at their joints, which cannot be made so tight that they will not admit the very small amount of water that will need to enter at each s.p.a.ce. Gisborne says:

"If an acre of land be intersected with parallel drains twelve yards apart, and if on that acre should fall the very unusual quant.i.ty of one inch of rain in twelve hours, in order that every drop of this rain may be discharged by the drains in forty-eight hours from the commencement of the rain-(and in a less period that quant.i.ty neither will, not is it desirable that it should, filter through an agricultural soil)-the interval between two pipes will be called upon to pa.s.s two-thirds of a tablespoonful of water per minute, and no more. Inch pipes, lying at a small inclination, and running only half-full, will discharge more than double this quant.i.ty of water in forty-eight hours."

Tiles may be made of any desired form of section,-the usual forms are the "horse-shoe," the "sole," the "double-sole," and the "round." The latter may be used with collars, and they const.i.tute the "pipes and collars,"

frequently referred to in English books on drainage.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE.]

Fig. 13 - HORSE-SHOE TILE.