Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health Part 2

The season of growth is lengthened by draining, because, by avoiding the cooling effects of evaporation, germination is more rapid, and the young plant grows steadily from the start, instead of struggling against the r.e.t.a.r.ding influence of a cold soil.

*Temperature.*-The temperature of the soil has great effect on the germination of seeds, the growth of plants, and the ripening of the crops.

Gisborne says: "The evaporation of 1 lb. of water lowers the temperature of 100 lbs. of soil 10,-that is to say, that, if to 100 lbs. of soil, holding all the water it can by attraction, but containing no water of drainage, is added 1 lb. of water which it has no means of discharging, except by evaporation, it will, by the time that it has so discharged it, be 60 colder than it would have been, if it had the power of discharging this 1 lb. by filtration; or, more practically, that, if rain, entering in the proportion of 1 lb. to 100 lbs. into a retentive soil, which is saturated with water of attraction, is discharged by evaporation, it lowers the temperature of that soil 10. If the soil has the means of discharging that 1 lb. of water by filtration, no effect is produced beyond what is due to the relative temperatures of the rain and of the soil."

It has been established by experiment that four times as much heat is required to evaporate a certain quant.i.ty of water, as to raise the same quant.i.ty from the freezing to the boiling point.

It is, probably, in consequence of this cooling effect of evaporation, that wet lands are warmest when shaded, because, under this condition, evaporation is less active. Such lands, in cloudy weather, form an unnatural growth, such as results in the "lodging" of grain crops, from the deficient strength of the straw which this growth produces.

In hot weather, the temperature of the lower soil is, of course, much lower than that of the air, and lower than that of the water of warm rains. If the soil is saturated with water, the water will, of course, be of an even temperature with the soil in which it lies, but if this be drained off, warm air will enter from above, and give its heat to the soil, while each rain, as it falls, will also carry its heat with it.

Furthermore, the surface of the ground is sometimes excessively heated by the summer sun, and the heat thus contained is carried down to the lower soil by the descending water of rains, which thus cool the surface and warm the subsoil, both beneficial.

Mr. Josiah Parkes, one of the leading draining engineers of England, has made some experiments to test the extent to which draining affects the temperature of the soil. The results of his observations are thus stated by Gisborne: "Mr. Parkes gives the temperature on a Lancashire flat moss, but they only commence 7 inches below the surface, and do not extend to mid-summer. At that period of the year the temperature, at 7 inches, never exceeded 66, and was generally from 10 to 15 below the temperature of the air in the shade, at 4 feet above the earth. Mr. Parkes' experiments were made simultaneously, on a drained, and on an undrained portion of the moss; and the result was, that, on a mean of 35 observations, the drained soil at 7 inches in depth was 10 warmer than the undrained, at the same depth. The undrained soil never exceeded 47, whereas, after a thunder storm, the drained reached 66 at 7 inches, and 48 at 31 inches. Such were the effects, at an early period of the year, on a black bog. They suggest some idea of what they were, when, in July or August, thunder rain at 60 or 70 falls on a surface heated to 130, and carries down with it, into the greedy fissures of the earth, its augmented temperature. These advantages, porous soils possess by nature, and retentive ones only acquire them by drainage."

Drained land, being more open to atmospheric circulation, and having lost the water which prevented the temperature of its lower portions from being so readily affected by the temperature of the air as it is when dry, will freeze to a greater depth in winter and thaw out earlier in the spring.

The deep freezing has the effect to greatly pulverize the lower soil, thus better fitting it for the support of vegetation; and the earlier thawing makes it earlier ready for spring work.

*Drought.*-At first thought, it is not unnatural to suppose that draining will increase the ill effect of too dry seasons, by removing water which might keep the soil moist. Experience has proven, however, that the result is exactly the opposite of this. Lands which suffer most from drought are most benefited by draining,-more in their greater ability to withstand drought than in any other particular.

The reasons for this action of draining become obvious, when its effects on the character of the soil are examined. There is always the same amount of water in, and about, the surface of the earth. In winter there is more in the soil than in summer, while in summer, that which has been dried out of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the form of a _vapor_. It is held in the vapory form by _heat_, which may be regarded as _braces_ to keep it distended. When vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently colder than itself, it gives up its heat,-thus losing its braces,-contracts, becomes liquid water, and is deposited as dew.

Many instances of this operation are familiar to all.

For instance, a cold pitcher in the summer robs the vapor in the air of its heat, and causes it to be deposited on its own surface,-of course the water comes from the atmosphere, not through the wall of the pitcher; if we breathe on a knife blade, it condenses, in the same manner, the moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a film of-water; stone-houses are damp in summer, because the inner surface of their walls, being cooler than the atmosphere, causes its moisture to be deposited in the manner described;(2) nearly every night, in summer, the cold earth receives moisture from the atmosphere in the form of dew; a single large head of cabbage, which at night is very cold, often condenses water to the amount of a gill or more.

The same operation takes place in the soil. When the air is allowed to circulate among its lower and cooler, (because more shaded,) particles, they receive moisture by the same process of condensation. Therefore, when, by the aid of under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufficiently loose and open, to allow a circulation of air, the deposit of atmospheric moisture will keep it supplied with water, at a point easily accessible to the roots of plants.

If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is practically correct, we have only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil,-one three or four inches deep,-and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place them in the sun, at midday, in summer. The thinner soil will soon be completely dried, while the deeper one, though it may have been previously dried in an oven, will soon acc.u.mulate a large amount of water on those particles which, being lower and better sheltered from the sun's heat than the particles of the thin soil, are made cooler.

We have seen that even the most retentive soil,-the stiffest clay,-is made porous by the repeated pa.s.sage of water from the surface to the level of the drains, and that the ability to admit air, which plowing gives it, is maintained for a much longer time than if it were usually saturated with water which has no other means of escape than by evaporation at the surface. The power of dry soils to absorb moisture from the air may be seen by an examination of the following table of results obtained by Schuebler, who exposed 1,000 grains of dried soil of the various kinds named to the action of the air:

Kind of Soil. Amount of Water Absorbed in 24 Hours.

Common Soil 22 grains.

Loamy Clay 26 grains.

Garden Soil 45 grains.

Brickmakers' Clay 30 grains.

The effect of draining in overcoming drought, by admitting atmospheric vapor will, of course, be very much increased if the land be thoroughly loosened by cultivation, and especially if the surface be kept in an open and mellow condition.

In addition to the moisture received from the air, as above described, water is, in a porous soil, drawn up from the wetter subsoil below, by the same attractive force which acts to wet the whole of a sponge of which only the lower part touches the water;-as a hard, dry, compact sponge will absorb water much less readily than one which is loose and open, so the hard clods, into which undrained clay is dried, drink up water much less freely than they will do after draining shall have made them more friable.

The source of this underground moisture is the "water table,"-the level of the soil below the influence of the drains,-and this should be so placed that, while its water will easily rise to a point occupied by the feeding roots of the crop, it should yield as little as possible for evaporation at the surface.

Another source of moisture, in summer, is the deposit of dew on the surface of the ground. The amount of this is very difficult to determine, and accurate American experiments on the subject are wanting. Of course the amount of dew is greater here than in England, where Dr. Dalton, a skillful examiner of atmospheric phenomena, estimates the annual deposit of dew to equal a depth of five inches, or about one-fifth of the rain-fall. Water thus deposited on the soil is absorbed more or less completely, in proportion to the porosity of the ground.

The extent to which plants will be affected by drought depends, other things being equal, on the depth to which they send their roots. If these lie near the surface, they will be parched by the heat of the sun. If they strike deeply into the damper subsoil, the sun will have less effect on the source from which they obtain their moisture. Nothing tends so much to deep rooting, as the thorough draining of the soil. If the _free_ water be withdrawn to a considerable distance from the surface, plants,-even without the valuable aid of deep and subsoil plowing,-will send their roots to great depths. Writers on this subject cite many instances in which the roots of ordinary crops "not mere hairs, but strong fibres, as large as pack-thread," sink to the depth of 4, 6, and in some instances 12 or 14 feet. Certain it is that, in a healthy, well aerated soil, any of the plants ordinarily cultivated in the garden or field will send their roots far below the parched surface soil; but if the subsoil is wet, cold, and soggy, at the time when the young crop is laying out its plan of future action, it will perforce accommodate its roots to the limited s.p.a.ce which the comparatively dry surface soil affords.

It is well known among those who attend the meetings of the Farmers' Club of the American Inst.i.tute, in New York, that the farm of Professor Mapes, near Newark, N.J., which maintains its wonderful fertility, year after year, without reference to wet or dry weather, has been rendered almost absolutely indifferent to the severest drought, by a course of cultivation which has been rendered possible only by under-draining. The lawns of the Central Park, which are a marvel of freshness, when the lands about the Park are burned brown, owe their vigor mainly to the complete drainage of the soil. What is true of these thoroughly cultivated lands, it is practicable to attain on all soils, which, from their compact condition, are now almost denuded of vegetation in dry seasons.

*Porosity or Mellowness.*-An open and mellow condition of the soil is always favorable for the growth of plants. They require heat, fresh air and moisture, to enable them to take up the materials on which they live, and by which they grow. We have seen that the heat of retentive soils is almost directly proportionate to the completeness with which their free water is removed by underground draining, and that, by reason of the increased facility with which air and water circulate within them, their heat is more evenly distributed among all those parts of the soil which are occupied by roots. The word _moisture_, in this connection, is used in contradistinction to _wetness_, and implies a condition of freshness and dampness,-not at all of saturation. In a saturated, a soaking-wet soil, every s.p.a.ce between the particles is filled with water to the entire exclusion of the atmosphere, and in such a soil only aquatic plants will grow. In a _dry_ soil, on the other hand, when the earth is contracted into clods and baked, almost as in an oven,-one of the most important conditions for growth being wanting,-nothing can thrive, save those plants which ask of the earth only an anchoring place, and seek their nourishment from the air. Both air plants and water plants have their wisely a.s.signed places in the economy of nature, and nature provides them with ample s.p.a.ce for growth. Agriculture, however, is directed to the production of a cla.s.s of plants very different from either of these,-to those which can only grow to their greatest perfection in a soil combining, not one or two only, but all three of the conditions named above. While they require heat, they cannot dispense with the moisture which too great heat removes; while they require moisture, they cannot abide the entire exclusion of air, nor the dissipation of heat which too much water causes. The interior part of the pellets of a well pulverized soil should contain all the water that they can hold by their own absorptive power, just as the finer walls of a damp sponge hold it; while the s.p.a.ces between these pellets, like the pores of the sponge, should be filled with air.

In such a soil, roots can extend in any direction, and to considerable depth, without being parched with thirst, or drowned in stagnant water, and, other things being equal, plants will grow to their greatest possible size, and all their tissues will be of the best possible texture. On rich land, which is maintained in this condition of porosity and mellowness, agriculture will produce its best results, and will encounter the fewest possible chances of failure. Of course, there are not many such soils to be found, and such absolute balance between warmth and moisture in the soil cannot be maintained at all times, and under all circ.u.mstances, but the more nearly it is maintained, the more nearly perfect will be the results of cultivation.

*Chemical Action in the Soil.*-Plants receive certain of their const.i.tuents from the soil, through their roots. The raw materials from which these const.i.tuents are obtained are the minerals of the soil, the manures which are artificially applied, water, and certain substances which are taken from the air by the absorptive action of the soil, or are brought to it by rains, or by water flowing over the surface from other land.

The mineral matters, which const.i.tute the ashes of plants, when burned, are not mere accidental impurities which happen to be carried into their roots in solution in the water which supplies the sap, although they vary in character and proportion with each change in the mineral composition of the soil. It is proven by chemical a.n.a.lysis, that the composition of the ashes, not only of different species of plants, but of different parts of the same plant, have distinctive characters,-some being rich in phosphates, and others in silex; some in potash, and others in lime,-and that these characters are in a measure the same, in the same plants or parts of plants, without especial reference to the soil on which they grow. The minerals which form the ashes of plants, const.i.tute but a very small part of the soil, and they are very spa.r.s.ely distributed throughout the ma.s.s; existing in the interior of its particles, as well as upon their surfaces. As roots cannot penetrate to the interior of pebbles and compact particles of earth, in search of the food which they require, but can only take that which is exposed on their surfaces, and, as the oxydizing effect of atmospheric air is useful in preparing the crude minerals for a.s.similation, as well as in decomposing the particles in which they are bound up,-a process which is allied to the _rusting_ of metals,-the more freely atmospheric air is allowed, or induced, to circulate among the inner portions of the soil, the more readily are its fertilizing parts made available for the use of roots. By no other process, is air made to enter so deeply, nor to circulate so readily in the soil, as by under-draining, and the deep cultivation which under-draining facilitates.

Of the manures which are applied to the land, those of a mineral character are affected by draining, in the same manner as the minerals which are native to the soil; while organic, or animal and vegetable, manures, (especially when applied, as is usual, in an incompletely fermented condition,) absolutely require fresh supplies of atmospheric air, to continue the decomposition which alone can prepare them for their proper effect on vegetation.

If kept saturated with water, so that the air is excluded, animal manures lie nearly inert, and vegetable matters decompose but incompletely,-yielding acids which are injurious to vegetation, and which would not be formed in the presence of a sufficient supply of air. An instance is cited by H. Wauer where sheep dung was preserved, for five years, by excessive moisture, which kept it from the air. If the soil be saturated with water in the spring, and, in summer, (by the compacting of its surface, which is caused by evaporation,) be closed against the entrance of air, manures will be but slowly decomposed, and will act but imperfectly on the crop,-if, on the other hand, a complete system of drainage be adopted, manures, (and the roots which have been left in the ground by the previous crop,) will be readily decomposed, and will exercise their full influence on the soil, and on the plants growing in it.

Again, manures are more or less effective, in proportion as they are more or less thoroughly mixed with the soil. In an undrained, retentive soil, it is not often possible to attain that perfect _tilth_, which is best suited for a proper admixture, and which is easily given after thorough draining.

The soil must be regarded as the laboratory in which nature, during the season of growth, is carrying on those hidden, but indispensable chemical separations, combinations, and re-combinations, by which the earth is made to bear its fruits, and to sustain its myriad life. The chief demand of this laboratory is for free ventilation. The raw material for the work is at hand,-as well in the wet soil as in the dry; but the door is sealed, the damper is closed, and only a stray whiff of air can, now and then, gain entrance,-only enough to commence an a.n.a.lysis, or a combination, which is choked off when half complete, leaving food for sorrel, but making none for gra.s.s. We must throw open door and window, draw away the water in which all is immersed, let in the air, with its all destroying, and, therefore, all re-creating oxygen, and leave the forces of nature's beneficent chemistry free play, deep down in the ground. Then may we hope for the full benefit of the fertilizing matters which our good soil contains, and for the full effect of the manures which we add.

With our land thoroughly improved, as has been described, we may carry on the operations of farming with as much certainty of success, and with as great immunity from the ill effects of unfavorable weather, as can be expected in any business, whose results depend on such a variety of circ.u.mstances. We shall have subst.i.tuted certainty for chance, as far as it is in our power to do so, and shall have made farming an art, rather than a venture.

CHAPTER III. - HOW TO GO TO WORK TO LAY OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS.

How to lay out the drains; where to place the outlet; where to locate the main collecting lines; how to arrange the laterals which are to take the water from the soil and deliver it at the mains; how deep to go; at what intervals; what fall to give; and what sizes of tile to use,-these are all questions of great importance to one who is about to drain land.

On the proper adjustment of these points, depend the _economy_ and _effectiveness_ of the work. Time and attention given to them, before commencing actual operations, will prevent waste and avoid failure. Any person of ordinary intelligence may qualify himself to lay out under-drains and to superintend their construction,-but the knowledge which is required does not come by nature. Those who have not the time for the necessary study and practice to make a plan for draining their land, will find it economical to employ an engineer for the purpose. In this era of railroad building, there is hardly a county in America which has not a practical surveyor, who may easily qualify himself, by a study of the principles and directions herein set forth, to lay out an economical plan for draining any ordinary agricultural land, to stake the lines, and to determine the grade of the drains, and the sizes of tile with which they should be furnished.

On this subject Mr. Gisborne says: "If we should give a stimulus to amateur draining, we shall do a great deal of harm. We wish we could publish a list of the moneys which have been squandered in the last 40 years in amateur draining, either ineffectually or with very imperfect efficiency. Our own name would be inscribed in the list for a very respectable sum. Every thoughtless squire supposes that, with the aid of his ignorant bailiff, he can effect a perfect drainage of his estate; but there is a worse man behind the squire and the bailiff,-the draining conjuror. * * * * * * These fellows never go direct about their work. If they attack a spring, they try to circ.u.mvent it by some circuitous route.

They never can learn that nature shows you the weakest point, and that you should a.s.sist her,-that _hit him straight in the eye_ is as good a maxim in draining as in pugilism. * * * * * * If you wish to drain, we recommend you to take advice. We have disposed of the quack, but there is a faculty, not numerous but extending, and whose extension appears to us to be indispensable to the satisfactory progress of improvements by draining,-a faculty of draining engineers. If we wanted a profession for a lad who showed any congenial talent, we would bring him up to be a draining engineer." He then proceeds to speak of his own experience in the matter, and shows that, after more than thirty years of intelligent practice, he employed Mr. Josiah Parkes to lay out and superintend his work, and thus effected a saving, (after paying all professional charges,) of fully twelve per cent. on the cost of the draining, which was, at the same time, better executed than any that he had previously done.

It is probable that, in nearly all amateur draining, the unnecessary frequency of the lateral drains; the extravagant size of the pipes used; and the number of useless angles which result from an unskillful arrangement, would amount to an expense equal to ten times the cost of the proper superintendence, to say nothing of the imperfect manner in which the work is executed. A common impression seems to prevail, that if a 2-inch pipe is good, a 3-inch pipe must be better, and that, generally, if draining is worth doing at all, it is worth overdoing; while the great importance of having perfectly fitting connections is not readily perceived. The general result is, that most of the tile-draining in this country has been too expensive for economy, and too careless for lasting efficiency.

It is proposed to give, in this chapter, as complete a description of the preliminary engineering of draining as can be concentrated within a few pages, and a hope is entertained, that it will, at least, convey an idea of the importance of giving a full measure of thought and ingenuity to the maturing of the _plan_, before the execution of the work is commenced.

"Farming upon paper" has never been held in high repute, but draining upon paper is less a subject for objection. With a good map of the farm, showing the comparative levels of outlet, hill, dale, and plain, and the sizes and boundaries of the different in closures, a profitable winter may be pa.s.sed,-with pencil and rubber,-in deciding on a plan which will do the required work with the least possible length of drain, and which will require the least possible extra deep cutting; and in so arranging the main drains as to require the smallest possible amount of the larger and more costly pipes; or, if only a part of the farm is to be drained during the coming season, in so arranging the work that it will dovetail nicely with future operations. A mistake in actual work is costly, and, (being buried under the ground,) is not easily detected, while errors in drawing upon paper are always obvious, and are remedied without cost.

For the purpose of ill.u.s.trating the various processes connected with the laying out of a system of drainage, the mode of operating on a field of ten acres will be detailed, in connection with a series of diagrams showing the progress of the work.

*A Map of the Land* is first made, from a careful survey. This should be plotted to a scale of 50 or 100 feet to the inch,(3) and should exhibit the location of obstacles which may interfere with the regularity of the drains,-such as large trees, rocks, etc., and the existing swamps, water courses, springs, and open drains. (Fig. 4.)

The next step is to locate the contour lines of the land, or the lines of equal elevation,-also called the _horizontal lines_,-which serve to show the shape of the surface. To do this, stake off the field into squares of 50 feet, by first running a base line through the center of the greatest length of the field, marking it with stakes at intervals of 50 feet, then stake other lines, also at intervals of 50 feet, perpendicular to the base line, and then note the position of the stakes on the maps; next, by the aid of an engineer's level and staff, ascertain the height, (above an imaginary plain below the lowest part of the field,) of the surface of the ground at each stake, and note this elevation at its proper point on the map. This gives a plot like Fig. 5. The best instrument with which to take these levels, is the ordinary telescope-level used by railroad engineers, shown in Fig. 6, which has a telescope with cross hairs intersecting each other in the center of the line of sight, and a "bubble" placed exactly parallel to this line. The instrument, fixed on a tripod, and so adjusted that it will turn to any point of the compa.s.s without disturbing the position of the bubble, will, (as will its "line of sight,") revolve in a perfectly horizontal plane. It is so placed as to command a view of a considerable stretch of the field, and its height above the imaginary plane is measured, an attendant places next to one of the stakes a levelling rod, (Fig. 7,) which is divided into feet and fractions of a foot, and is furnished with a movable target, so painted that its center point may be plainly seen. The attendant raises and lowers the target, until it comes exactly in the line of sight; its height on the rod denotes the height of the instrument above the level of the ground at that stake, and, as the height of the instrument above the imaginary plane has been reached, by subtracting one elevation from the other, the operator determines the height of the ground at that stake above the imaginary plane,-which is called the "_datum line_."

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING.]

Fig. 4 - MAP OF LAND, WITH SWAMPS, ROCKS, SPRINGS AND TREES. INTENDED TO REPRESENT A FIELD OF TEN ACRES BEFORE DRAINING.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5 - MAP WITH 50-FOOT SQUARES, AND CONTOUR LINES.]