Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health Part 14

In the case of Potatoes, also, the early planting will be a great advantage; and, while the cause of the potato-rot is not yet clearly discovered, it is generally conceded that, even if it does not result directly from too great wetness of the soil, its development is favored by this condition, either from a direct action on the tubers, or from the effect in the air immediately about the plants, of the exhalations of a humid soil.

An increase of from five to ten per cent. on a very ordinary crop of potatoes, will cover the drainage charge, and with facilities for marketing, the higher price of the earlier yield is of much greater consequence.

Barley will not thrive in wet soil, and there is no question that drainage would give it much more than the increased yield prescribed above.

As to hay, there are many wet, rich soils which produce very large crops of gra.s.s, and it is possible that drainage might not always cause them to yield a thousand pounds more of hay to the acre, but the _quality_ of the hay from the drained soil, would, of itself, more than compensate for the drainage charge. The great benefit of the improvement, with reference to this crop, however, lies in the fact that, although wet, gra.s.s lands,-and by "wet" is meant the condition of undrained, retentive clays, and heavy loams, or other soils requiring drainage,-in a very few years "run out,"

or become occupied by semi-aquatic and other objectionable plants, to the exclusion of the proper gra.s.ses; the same lands, thoroughly drained, may be kept in full yield of the finest hay plants, as long as the ground is properly managed. It must, of course, be manured, from time to time, and care should be taken to prevent the puddling of its surface, by men or animals, while it is too wet from recent rain. With proper attention to these points, it need not be broken up in a lifetime, and it may be relied on to produce uniformly good crops, always equal to the best obtained before drainage.

So far as Cotton and Tobacco are concerned, there are not many instances recorded of the systematic drainage of lands appropriated to their cultivation, but there is every reason to suppose that they will both be benefitted by any operation which will have the effect of placing the soil in a better condition for the uses of all cultivated plants. The average crop of tobacco is about 700 lbs., and that of cotton probably 250 lbs. An addition of one-fifth to the cotton crop, and of only one thirty-fifth to the tobacco crop, would make the required increase.

The failure of the cotton crop, during the past season, (1866,) might have been entirely prevented, in many districts, by the thorough draining of the land.

The advantages claimed for drainage with reference to the above-named staple crops, will apply with equal, if not greater force, to all garden and orchard culture. In fact, with the exception of osier willows, and cranberries, there is scarcely a cultivated plant which will not yield larger and better crops on drained than on undrained land,-enough better, and enough larger, to pay much more than the interest on the cost of the improvement.

Yet, this advantage of draining, is, by no means, the only one which is worthy of consideration. Since the object of cultivation is to produce remunerative crops, of course, the larger and better the crops, the more completely is the object attained;-and to this extent the greatest benefit resulting from draining, lies in the increased yield. But there is another advantage,-a material and moral advantage,-which is equally to be considered.

Instances of the profit resulting from under-draining, (coupled, as it almost always is, with improved cultivation,) are frequently published, and it would be easy to fortify this chapter with hundreds of well authenticated cases. It is, however, deemed sufficient to quote the following, from an old number of one of the New York dailies:-

"Some years ago, the son of an English farmer came to the United States, and let himself as a farm laborer, in New York State, on the following conditions: Commencing work at the first of September, he was to work ten hours a day for three years, and to receive in payment a deed of a field containing twelve acres-securing himself by an agreement, by which his employer was put under bonds of $2,000 to fulfill his part of the contract; also, during these three years, he was to have the control of the field; to work it at his own expense, and to give his employer one-half the proceeds. The field lay under the south side of a hill, was of dark, heavy clay resting on a bluish-colored, solid clay subsoil, and for many years previous, had not been known to yield anything but a yellowish, hard, stunted vegetation.

"The farmer thought the young man was a simpleton, and that he, himself, was most wise and fortunate; but the former, nothing daunted by this opinion, which he was not unconscious that the latter entertained of him, immediately hired a set of laborers, and set them to work in the field trenching, as earnestly as it was well possible for men to labor. In the morning and evening, before and after having worked his ten hours, as per agreement, he worked with them, and continued to work in this way until, about the middle of the following November, he had finished the laying of nearly 5,000 yards of good tile under-drains. He then had the field plowed deep and thoroughly, and the earth thrown up as much as possible into ridges, and thus let it remain during the winter.

Next spring he had the field again plowed as before, then cross-plowed and thoroughly pulverized with a heavy harrow, then sowed it with oats and clover. The yield was excellent-nothing to be compared to it had ever before been seen upon that field. Next year it gave two crops of clover, of a rich dark green, and enormously heavy and luxuriant; and the year following, after being manured at an expense of some $7 an acre, nine acres of the field yielded 936 bushels of corn, and 25 wagon loads of pumpkins; while from the remaining three acres were taken 100 bushels of potatoes-the return of this crop being upwards of $1,200. The time had now come for the field to fall into the young man's possession, and the farmer unhesitatingly offered him $1,500 to relinquish his t.i.tle to it; and when this was unhesitatingly refused, he offered $2,000, which was accepted.

"The young man's account stood thus

Half proceeds of oats $165 00 and straw, first year Half value of sheep 25 00 pasturage, first year Half of first crops of 112 50 clover, first year Half of second crops of 135 00 clover, including seed, second year Half of sheep 15 00 pasturage, second year Half of crops of corn, 690 00 pumpkins and potatoes, third year Received from farmer, 2,000 00 for relinquishment of t.i.tle --- Account Dr. $3,142 50 To under-draining, $325 00 labor and tiles To labor and manure, 475 00 three seasons To labor given to 576 00-1,376 00 farmer, $16 per month, 36 months --- Balance in his favor $1,766 50

Draining makes the farmer, to a great extent, the master of his vocation.

With a sloppy, drenched, cold, uncongenial soil, which is saturated with every rain, and takes days, and even weeks, to become sufficiently dry to work upon, his efforts are constantly baffled by unfavorable weather, at those times when it is most important that his work proceed without interruption. Weeks are lost, at a season when they are all too short for the work to be done. The ground must be hurriedly, and imperfectly prepared, and the seed is put in too late, often to rot in the over-soaked soil, requiring the field to be planted again at a time which makes it extremely doubtful whether the crop will ripen before the frost destroys it.

The necessary summer cultivation, between the rows, has to be done as the weather permits; and much more of it is required because of the baking of the ground. The whole life of the farmer, in fact, becomes a constant struggle with nature, and he fights always at a disadvantage. What he does by the work of days, is mainly undone by a single night's storm. Weeds grow apace, and the land is too wet to admit of their being exterminated.

By the time that it is dry enough, other pressing work occupies the time; and if, finally, a day comes when they may be attacked, they offer ten times the resistance that they would have done a week earlier. The operations of the farm are carried on more expensively than if the ability to work constantly allowed a smaller force to be employed. The crops which give such doubtful promise, require the same cultivation as though they were certain to be remunerative, and the work can be done only with increased labor, because of the bad condition of the soil.

From force of tradition and of habit, the farmer accepts his fate and plods through his hard life, piously ascribing to the especial interference of an inscrutable Providence, the trials which come of his own neglect to use the means of relief which Providence has placed within his reach.

Trouble enough he must have, at any rate, but not necessarily all that he now has. It is not within the scope of the best laid drains to control storm or sunshine,-but it is within their power to remove the water of the storm, rapidly and sufficiently, and to allow the heat of the sunshine to penetrate the soil and do its hidden work. No human improvement can change any of the so-called "phenomena" of nature, or prevent the action of the least of her laws; but their effects upon the soil and its crops may be greatly modified, and that which, under certain circ.u.mstances, would have caused inconvenience or loss, may, by a change of circ.u.mstances, be made positively beneficial.

In the practice of agriculture, which is pre-eminently an economic art, draining will be prosecuted because of the pecuniary profit which it promises, and,-very properly,-it will not be pursued, to any considerable extent, where the money, which it costs, will not bring money in return.

Yet, in a larger view of the case, its collateral advantages are of even greater moment than its mere profits. It is the foundation and the commencement of the most intelligent farming. It opens the way for other improvements, which, without it, would produce only doubtful or temporary benefits; and it enables the farmer so to extend and enlarge his operations, with fair promise of success, as to raise his occupation from a mere waiting upon the uncertain favors of nature, to an intelligent handling of her forces, for the attainment of almost certain results.

The rude work of an unthinking farmer, who scratches the surface soil with his plow, plants his seed, and trusts to the chances of a greater or less return, is unmitigated drudgery,-unworthy of an intelligent man; but he who investigates all of the causes of success and failure in farming, and adapts every operation to the requirements of the circ.u.mstances under which he works; doing everything in his power that may tend to the production of the results which he desires, and, so far as possible, avoiding everything that may interfere with his success,-leaving nothing to chance that can be secured, and securing all that chance may offer,-is engaged in the most enn.o.bling, the most intelligent and the most progressive of all industrial avocations.

In the cultivation of retentive soils, drainage is the key to all improvement, and its advantage is to be measured not simply by the effect which it directly produces in increasing production, but, in still greater degree, by the extent to which it prepares the way for the successful application of improved processes, makes the farmer independent of weather and season, and offers freer scope to intelligence in the direction of his affairs.

CHAPTER VIII. - HOW TO MAKE DRAINING TILES.

Draining tiles are made of burnt clay, like bricks and earthen-ware.

In general terms, the process is as follows:-The clay is mixed with sand, or other substances which give it the proper consistency, and is so wetted as to form a plastic ma.s.s, to which may be given any desired form, and which is sufficiently stiff to retain its shape. Properly prepared clay is forced through the aperture of a die of the shape of the outside of the tile, while a plug,-held by a support in the rear of the die,-projects through the aperture, and gives the form to the bore of the tile. The shape of the material of the tile, as it comes from the die, corresponds to the open s.p.a.ce, between the plug and the edge of the aperture. The clay is forced out in a continuous pipe, which is cut to the desired length by a wire, which is so thin as to pa.s.s through the ma.s.s without altering the shape of the pipe. The short lengths of pipe are dried in the air as thoroughly as they can be, and are then burned in a kiln, similar to that used for pottery.

*Materials.*-The range of earths which may be used in the manufacture of tiles is considerable, though clay is the basis of all of them. The best is, probably, the clay which is almost invariably found at the bottom of muck beds, as this is finer and more compact than that which is dug from dry land, and requires but little preparation. There is, also, a peculiar clay, found in some localities, which is almost like quick-sand in its nature, and which is excellent for tile-making,-requiring no freezing, or washing to prepare it for the machine. As a general rule, any clay which will make _good_ bricks will make tiles. When first taken from the ground, these clays are not usually adhesive, but become so on being moistened and kneaded.

It is especially important that no limestone _pebbles_ be mixed with the clay, as the burning would change these to quicklime, which, in slaking, would destroy the tiles. The presence of a limey earth, however, mixed through the ma.s.s, is a positive advantage, as in this intimate admixture, the lime forms, under the heat of the kiln, a chemical combination with the other ingredients; and, as it melts more readily than some of them, it hastens the burning and makes it more complete. What is known as _plastic clay_, (one of the purest of the native clays,) is too strong for tile-making, and must be "tempered," by having other substances mixed with it, to give it a stiffer quality.

The clay which is best for brick-making, contains Silica, and Alumina in about the following proportions:

Silica ... 55 to 75 per cent.

Alumina ... 35 to 25 per cent.

Variable quant.i.ties of other materials are usually found in connection with the clay, in its native condition. The most common of these are the following:-

Magnesia 1 to 5 per cent.-sometimes 20 to 30 per cent.

Lime 0 to 19 per cent.

Potash 0 to 5 per cent.

Oxyd of iron 0 to 19 per cent.

"These necessary elements give fusibility to earthenware, and, therefore, allow its const.i.tuent substances to combine in such a manner as to form a resisting body; and thus is performed with a temperature lower in proportion as the necessary elements are more abundant."(23)

When the earth of the locality where tiles are to be made is not sufficiently strong for the purpose, and plastic clay can be cheaply obtained from a distance, a small quant.i.ty of this may be used to give strength and tenacity to the native material.

The compound must always contain a proper proportion of clay and sand. If too little _clay_ is used, the ma.s.s will not be sufficiently tough to retain its compactness as it pa.s.ses through the die of the tile machine; if too little _sand_, the moulded tiles will not be strong enough to bear handling, and they will crack and warp in drying and burning. Within the proper limits, the richer earths may be moulded much thinner, and tiles made from them may, consequently, be made lighter for transportation, without being too weak. The best materials for tempering stiff clays are sand, pounded brick or tile, or _scoria_, from smelting furnaces.

*Preparation Of Earths.*-The clay from which tiles are to be made, should be thrown out in the fall, (the upper and lower parts of the beds being well mixed in the operation,) and made into heaps on the surface, not more than about 3 feet square and 3 feet high. In this form, it is left exposed to the freezing and thawing of winter, which will aid very much in modifying its character,-making it less lumpy and more easily workable.

Any stones which may appear in the digging, should, of course, be removed, and most earths will be improved by being pa.s.sed through a pair of heavy iron rollers, before they are piled up for the winter. The rollers should be made of cast iron, about 15 inches in diameter, and 30 inches long, and set as close together as they can be, and still be revolved by the power of two horses. The grinding, by means of these rollers, may add 50 cents per thousand to the cost of the tiles, but it will greatly improve their quality.

In the spring, the clay should be prepared for tempering, by the removal of such pebbles as it may still contain. The best way to do this is by "washing," though, if there be only a few coa.r.s.e pebbles, they may be removed by building the clay into a solid cone 2 or 3 feet high, and then paring it off into thin slices with a long knife having a handle at each end. This paring will discover any pebbles larger than a pea that may have remained in the clay.

_Washing_ is the process of mixing the clay with a considerable quant.i.ty of water, so as to form a thin paste, in which all stones and gravel will sink to the bottom; the liquid portion is then drawn off into shallow pits or vats, and allowed to settle, the clear water being finally removed by pumping or by evaporation, according to the need for haste. For washing small quant.i.ties of clay, a common mortar bed, such as is used by masons, will answer, if it be supplied with a gate for draining off the muddy water after the gravel has settled; but, if the work is at all extensive, a washing mill will be required. It may be made in the form of a circular trough, with sc.r.a.pers for mixing the clay and water attached to a circular horse-sweep.

"Another convenient mixing machine may be constructed in the following manner: Take a large hollow log, of suitable length, say five or six feet; hew out the inequalities with an adz, and close up the ends with pieces of strong plank, into which bearing have been cut to support a revolving shaft. This shaft should be sufficiently thick to permit being transfixed with wooden pins long enough to reach within an inch or two of the sides of the log or trough, and they should be so beveled as to form in their aggregate shape an interrupted screw, having a direction toward that end of the box where the mixed clay is designed to pa.s.s out. In order to effect the mixing more thoroughly, these pins may be placed sufficiently far apart to permit the interior of the box to be armed with other pins extending toward the center, between which they can easily move. The whole is placed either horizontally or vertically, and supplied with clay and water in proper quant.i.ties, while the shaft is made to revolve by means of a sweep, with horse power, running water or steam, as the case may be. The clay is put into the end farthest from the outlet, and is carried forward to it and mixed by the motion, and mutual action and re-action of the pins in the shaft and in the sides of the box. Iron pins may, of course, be subst.i.tuted for the wooden ones, and have the advantage of greater durability and of greater strength in proportion to their size, and the number may therefore be greater in a machine of any given length. The fluid ma.s.s of clay and water may be permitted to fall upon a sieve or riddle, of heavy wire, and afterward be received in a settling vat, of suitable size and construction, to drain off the water and let the clay dry out sufficiently by subsequent evaporation. A machine of this construction may be made of such a size that it may be put in motion by hand, by means of a crank, and yet be capable of mixing, if properly supplied, clay enough to mold 800 or 1000 pieces of drain pipe per day."(24)

Mr. Parkes, in a report to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in 1843, says:

"It is requisite that the clay be well washed and sieved before pugging, for the manufacture of these tiles, or the operation of drawing them would be greatly impeded, by having to remove stones from the small s.p.a.ce surrounding the die, which determines the thickness of the pipe. But it results from this necessary washing, that the substance of the pipe is uniformly and extremely dense, which, consequently, gives it immense strength, and ensures a durability which cannot belong to a more porous, though thicker, tile.

"The clay is brought from the pug-mill so dry that, when squeezed through the machine, not a drop of water exudes,-moisture is, indeed, scarcely apparent on the surface of the raw pipe. Hence, the tiles undergo little or no change of figure while drying, which takes place very rapidly, because of their firm and slight substance."

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 42 - PUG-MILL.]