Cosmos: A Sketch of the Physical Description of the Universe Part 38

41, 43, 67, and 96; Arago, in the 'Comptes Rendus', t. i., p. 268.

Even in northern lat.i.tudes exact observations show a striking difference between the 'mean annual temperature' of the east and west coasts of America. The mean annual temperature of Nain, in (lat. 57 degrees 10'), is fully 6.8 degrees 'below' the freezing point, while on the northwest coast, at New Archangel, in Russian America (lat. 57 degrees 3'), it is 12.4 degrees 'above' this point. At the first-named place, the mean summer temperature hardly amounts to 43 degrees, while at the latter place it is 57 degrees. Pekin (39 degrees 54'), on the eastern coast of Asia, has a mean annual tempeerature of 52.8 degrees, which is 9 degrees below that of Naples, situated somewhat further to the north. The mean winter temperature of Pekin is at least 5.4 degrees below the freezing point, while in Western Europe, even at Paris (48 degrees 50'), it is nearly 6 degrees above the freezing point. Pekin has also a mean winter cold which is 4.5 degrees lower than that of Copenhagen, lying 17 degrees further to the north.

We have already seen the slowness with which the great ma.s.s of the ocean follows the variations of temperature in the atmosphere, and how the sea acts in equalizing temperatures, moderating simultaneously the severity of winter and the heat of summer. Hence arises a second more important contrast -- that, namely, between insular and littoral climates enjoyed by all articulated continents having deeply indented bays and peninsulas, and between the climate of the interior of great ma.s.ses of solid land. This remarkable contrast has been fully p 322 developed by Leopold von Buch in all its various phenomena, both with respect to its influence on vegetation and agriculrure, on the transparency of the atmosphere, the radiation of the soil, and the elevation of the line of perpetual snow. In the interior of the Asiatic Continent, Tobolsk, Barnaul on the Oby, and Irkutsk, have the same mean summer heat as Berlin, Munster, and Cherbourg in Normandy, the thermometer sometimes remaining for weeks together at 86 degrees or 88 degrees, while the mean winter temperature is, during the coldest month, as low as -0.4 degrees to -4 degrees. These continental climates have therefore justly been termed 'excessive' by the great mathematician and physicist Buffon; and the inhabitants who live in countries having such 'excessive' climates seem almost condemned, as Dante expresses himself, "A sofferir tormenti caldi e geli."*

[fiitbite] *Dante, 'Divina Commedia, Purgatorio', canto iii.

In no portion of the earth, neither in the Canary Islands, in Spain, nor in the south of France, have I ever seen more luxuriant fruit, especially grapes, than in Astrachan, near the sh.o.r.es of the Caspian Sea (46 degrees 21'). Although the mean annual temperature is about 48degrees, the mean summer heat rises to 70degrees, as at Bordeaux, while not only there, but also further to the south, as at Kislar on the mouth of the Terek (in the lat.i.tude of Avignon and Rimini), the thermometer sinks in the winter to -13 degrees or -22 degrees.

Ireland, Guernsey, and Jersey, the peninsula of Brittany, the coasts of Normandy, and of the south of England, present, by the mildness of their winters, and by the low temperature and clouded sky of their summers, the most striking contrast to the continental climate of the interior of Eastern Europe. In the northeast of Ireland (54 degrees 56'), lying under the same parallel of lat.i.tude as Konigsberg in Prussia, the myrtle blooms as luxuriantly as in Portugal. The mean temperature of the month of August, which in Hungary rises to 70 degrees, scarcely reaches 61 degrees at Dublin, which is situated on the same isothermal line of 49 degrees; the mean winter temperature, which falls to about 28 degrees at Pesth, is 40 degrees at Dublin (whose mean annual temperature is not more than 49 degrees); 3.6 degrees higher than that of Milan, Pavia, Padua, and the whole of Lombardy, where the mean annual temperature is upward of 55degrees. At Stromness, in the Orkneys, scarcely half a degree further south than Stockholm, the winter temperature is 39 degrees, and consequently higher than that of Paris, and neary as high as that of London.

p 323 Even in the Faroe Islands, at 62 degrees lat.i.tude, the inland waters never freeze, owing to the favoring influence of the west winds and of the sea.

On the charming coasts of Devonshire, near Salcombe Bay, which has been termed, on account of the mildness of its climate, the 'Montpellier of the North', the Agave Mexicana has been seen to blossoom in the open air, while orange-trees trained against espaliers, and only slightly protected by matting, are found to bear fruit. There, as well as at Penzance and Gosport, and at Cherbourg on the coast of Normandy, the mean winter temperature exceeds 42 degrees, falling short by only 2.4 degrees of the mean winter temperature of Montpellier and Florence.*

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Sur les Lignes Isothermes', in the 'Memoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Societe d'Arcueil', t. iii., Paris, 1817, p.

143-165; Knight, in the 'Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London', vol. i, p. 32; Watson, 'Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of British Plants', 1835, p. 60; Trevelyan, in Jemieson's 'Edinburgh New Phil.

Journal', No. 18, p. 154; Mahlmann in his admirable German translation of my 'Asie Centrale', th. ii., s. 60.

These observations will suffice to show the important influence exercised on vegetation and agriculture, on the cultivation of fruit, and on the comfort of mankind, by differences in the distribution of the same mean annual temperature, through the different seasons of the year.

The lines which I have termed 'Isochimenal' and 'isotheral' (lines of equal winter and equal summer temperature) are by no means parallel with the 'isothermal' lines (lines of equal annual temperature). If, for instance, in countries where myrtles grow wild, and the earth does not remain covered with snow in the winter, the temperature of the summer and autumn is barely sufficient to bring apples to perfect ripeness, and if, again, we observe that the grape rarely attains the ripeness necessary to convert it into wine, either in islands or in the vicinity of the sea, even when cultivated on a western coast, the reason must not be sought only in the low degree of summer heat, indicated, in littoral situations, by the thermometer when suspended in the shade, but likewise in another cause that has not hitherto been sufficiently considered, although it exercises an active influence on many other phenomena (as, for instance, in the inflammation of a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen), namely the difference between direct and diffused light, or that which prevails when the sky is clear and when it is overcast by mist. I long since endeavored to attract the attention of physicists and physiologists* to this p 324 difference, and to the 'unmeasured' heat which is locally developed in the living vegetable cell by the action of direct light.

[footnote] *"Haec de temperie aeris, qui terram late circ.u.mfundit, ac in quo, longe a solo, instrumenta nostra meteorologica suspensa habemus. Sed alia est caloris vis, quem radii solis nullis nubibus velati, in foliis ipsia et fructibus maturescentibus, magis minusve coloratis, gignunt, quemque, ut egregia demonstrant experimenta amicissimorum Gay-Lussacii et Thenardi de combustione chlori et hydrogenis, ope thermometri metiri nequis.

Etenim locis planis et montanis, vento libe spirante, circ.u.mfusi aeris temperies cadem esse potest coelo sudo vel nebuloso; ideoque ex observationibus solis thermometricis, nullo adhibito Photometro, haud cognosces, quam ob causam Galliae septentrionalis tractur Armorica.n.u.s et Nervicus, versus littora, coe temperato sed sole raro utentia, Vitem fere non tolerant. Egent enim stirpes non solum caloris stimulo, sed et lucis, quae magis intensa locis excelsis quam planis, duplici modo plantas movet, vi sua tum propria, tum calorem in superficie earum excitante." -- Humboldt, 'De Distributione Geographica Plantarum', 1817, p. 163-164.

If, in forming a thermic scale of different kinds of cultivation,* we begin with those plants which require the hottest climate, as the vanilla, the cacao, banana, and cocoa-nut, and proceed to the pine-apples, the sugar-cane, coffee, fruit-bearing date-trees, the cotton-tree, citrons, olives, edible chestnuts, and fines producing potable wine, an exact geographical consideration of the limits of cultivation, both on plains and on the declivities of mountains, will teach us that other climatic relations besides those of mean annual temperature are involved in these phenomena.

[footnote] *Humboldt, op. cit., p. 156-161; Meyen, in his 'Grundriss der Pflanzengeographie', 1836 s. 379-467; Boussingault, 'Economie Rurale', t.

ii., p. 675.

Taking an example, for instance, from the cultivation of the vine, we find that, in order to procure 'potable' wine,* it is requisite that the mean annual heat should exceed 49 degrees, that the winter temperature upward of 64 degrees.

[footnote] *the following table ill.u.s.trates the cultivation of the vine in Europe, and also the depreciation of its produce according to climatic relations. See my 'Asie Centrale', t. iii., p. 159. The examples quoted in the text for Bordeaux and Potsdam are, in respect of numerical relation, alike applicable to the countries of the Rhine and Maine (48 degrees 35' to 40 degrees 7' N. lat.). Cherbourg in Normandy, and Ireland, show in th most remarkable manner how, with thermal relations very nearly similar to those prevailing in the interior of the Continent (as estimated by the thermometer in the shade), the results are nevertheless extremely different as regards the ripeness or the unripeness of the fruit of the vine, this difference undoubtedly depending on the circ.u.mstance whether the vegetation of the plant proceeds under a bright sunny sky, or under a sky that is habitually obscured by clouds:

[NB Table will line up in Courier 10 point]

_____________________________________________________________________ Places. Lat- Ele- Mean Win- Spring. Sum- Aut- Number of the it- va- of the ter. mer. umn. years of the tude tion. Year. observation

_____________________________________________________________________ deg ' Eng.ft. Fahr.

Bordeaux 44 50 25.6 57.0 43.0 56.0 71.0 58.0 10 Stras- 48 35 479.0 49.6 34.5 50.0 64.6 50.0 35 bourg Heid- 49 24 333.5 59.5 34.0 50.0 64.3 49.7 20 elberg Manheim 49 29 300.5 50.6 34.6 50.8 67.1 49.5 12 Wurzburg 49 48 562.5 50.2 35.5 50.5 65.7 49.4 27 Frank- fort on Maine 50 7 388.5 49.5 33.3 50.0 64.4 49.4 19 Berlin 52 31 102.3 47.5 31.0 46.6 63.6 47.5 23 Cher- bourg (no wine) 49 39 .... 52.1 41.5 50.8 61.7 54.2 3 Dublin (ditto) 53 23 .... 49.1 40.2 47.1 59.6 49.7 13 ___________________________________________________________________

The great accordance in the distribution of the annual temperature through the different seasons, as presented by the results obtained for the valleys of the Rhine and Maine, tends to confirm the accuracy of these meteorological observations. The months of December, January, and February are reckoned as winter months. When the different qualities of the wines produced in Franconia, and in the countries around the Baltic, are compared with the mean summer and autumn temperature of Wurzburg and Berlin, we are almost surprised to find a difference of only about two degrees. The difference in the spring is about four degrees. The influence of late May frosts on the flowering season, and after a correspondingly cold winter, is almost as important an element as the time of the subsequent ripening of the grape. The difference alluded to in the text between the true temperature of the surface of the ground and the indications of a thermometer suspended in the shade and protected from extraneous influences, is inferred by Dove from a consideration of the results of fifteen years' observations made at the Chiswick Gardens. See Dove, in 'Bericht uber die Verhandl. der Berl.

Akad. der Wiss.', August, 1844, s. 285.

At Bordeaux, in the valley of the Garonne (44 degrees 50' lat.), the mean annual winter, summer, and autumn temperatures are respectively 57 degrees, 43 degrees, 71 degrees, and 58 degrees. In the plains near the p 325 Baltic (52 degrees 30' lat.), where a wine is produced that can scarcely be considered potable, these numbers are as follows: 47.5 degrees, 30 degrees, 63.7 degrees, and 47.5 degrees. If it should appear strange that the great differences indicated by the influence of climate on the production of wine should not be more clearly manifested by our thermometers, the circ.u.mstance will appear less singular when we remember that a thermometer standing in the shade, and protected from the effect of direct insolation and nocturnal radiation can not, at all seasong of the year, and during all periodic changes of heat, indicate the true superficial temperature of the ground exposed to the whole effect of the sun's rays.

The same relations which exist between the equable littoral climate of the peninsula of Brittany, and the lower winter and p 326 higher summer temperature of the remainder of the continent of France, are likewise manifested in some degree, between Europe and the great continent of Asia, of which the former may be considered to const.i.tute the western peninsula. Europe owes its milder climate, in the first place, to its position with respect to Africa, whose wide extent of tropical land is favorable to the ascending current, while the equatorial region to the south of Asia is almost wholly oceanic; and next to its deeply-articulated configuration, to the vicinity of the ocean on its western sh.o.r.es; and, lastly, to the existence of an open sea, which bounds its northern confines.

Europe would therefore become colder* if Africa were to be overflowed by the ocean; of if the mythical Atlantis were to arise and connect Europe with North America; or if the Gulf Stream were no longer to diffuse the warming influence of its waters into the North Sea; or if, finally, another ma.s.s of solid land should be upheaved by volcanic action, and interposed between the Scandinavian peninsula and Spitzbergen.

[footnote] *See my memoir, 'Ueber die Haupt-Ursachen der Temperaturverschiedenheit auf der Erdoberfl?che', in the 'Abhandl. der Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin von dem Jahr' 1827, s. 311.

If we observe that in Europe the mean annual temperature falls as we proceed, from west to east, under the same parallel of lat.i.tude, from the Atlantic sh.o.r.es of France through Germany, Poland, and Russia, toward the Uralian Mountains, the main cause of this phenomenon of increasing cold must be sought in the form of the continent (which becomes less indented, and wider, and more compact as we advance), in the increasing distance from seas, and in the diminished influence of westerly winds. Beyond the Uralian Mountains these winds are converted into cool land-winds, blowing over extended tracts covered with ice and show. The cold of western Siberia is to be ascribed to these relations of configuration and atmospheric currents, and not -- as Hippocrates and Trogus Pompeius, and even celebrated travelers of the eighteenth century conjectures -- to the great elevation of the soil above the level of the sea.*

[footnote] *The general level of Siberia, from Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Barnaul, from the Altai Mountains to the Polar Sea, is not so high as that of Mauheim and Dresden; indeed, Irkutsk, far to the east of the Jenisei, is only 1330 feet above the level of the sea, or about one third lower than Munich.

If we pa.s.s from the differences of temperature manifested in the plains to the inequalities of the polyhedric form of the surface of our planet, we shall have to consider mountains either in relation to their influence on the climate of neighboring p 327 valleys, or according to the effects of the hyposometrical relations on their own summits, which often spread into elevated plateaux. The division of mountains into chains separates the earth's surface into different basins, which are often narrow and walled in, forming caldron-like valleys, and (as in Greece and in part of Asia Minor) const.i.tute an individual local climate with respect to heat, moisture, transparancy of atmosphere, and frequency of winds and storms. These circ.u.mstances have at all times exercised a powerful influence on the character and cultivation of natural products, and on the manners and inst.i.tutions of neighboring nations, and even on the feelings with which they regard one another. This character of 'geographical individuality' attains its maximum, if we may be allowed so to speak, in countries where the differences in the configuration of the soil are the greatest possible, either in a vertical or horizontal direction, both in relief and in the articulation of the continent. The greatest contrast to these varieties in the relations of the surface of the earth are manifested in the Steppes of Northern Asia, the gra.s.sy plains (savannahs, llanos, and pampas) of the New Continent, the heath ('Ericeta') of Europe, and the sandy and stony deserts of Africa.

The law of the decrease of heat with the increase of elevation at different lat.i.tudes is one of the most important subjects involved in the study of meteorological processes, of the geography of plants, of the theory of terrestrial refraction, and of the various hypotheses that relate to the determination of the height of the atmosphere. In the many mountain journeys which I have undertaken, both within and without the tropics, the investigation of this law has always formed a special object of my researches.*

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Recueil d'Observations Astronomiques', t. i., p.

126-140; 'Relation Historique', t. i., p. 119, 141, 227; Biot, in 'Connaissance des Temps pour l'an' 1841, p. 90-109.

Since we have acquired a more accurate knowledge of the true relations of the distribution of heat on the surface of the earth, that is to say, of the inflections of isothermal and isotheral lines, and their unequal distance apart in the different eastern and western systems of temperature in Asia, Central Europe, and North America, we can no longer ask the general question, what fraction of the mean annual or summer temperature corresponds to the difference of one degree of geographical lat.i.tude, taken in the same meridian? In each system of 'isothermal' lines of equal curvature there reigns a p 328 close and necessary connection between three elements, namely, the decrease of heat in a vertical direction from below upward, the difference of temperature for every one degree of geographical lat.i.tude, and the uniformity in the mean temperature of a mountain station, and the lat.i.tude of a point situated at the level of the sea.

In the system of Eastern America, the mean annual temperature from the coast of Labrador to Boston changes 1.6degrees for every degree of lat.i.tude; from Boston to Charleston about 1.7 degrees; from Charleston to the tropic of Cancer, in Cuba, the variation is less rapid, being only 1.2 degrees. In the tropics this diminution is so much greater, that from the Havana to c.u.mana the variation is less than 0.4 degrees for every degree of lat.i.tude.

The case is quite different in the isothermal system of Central Europe.

Between the parallels of 38 degrees and 71 degrees I found that the decrease of temperature was very regularly 0.9degrees for every degree of lat.i.tude.

But as, on the other hand, in Central Europe the decrease of heat is 1.8 degrees for about every 534 feet of vertical elevation, it follows that a difference of elevation of about 267 feet corresponds to the difference of one degree of lat.i.tude. The same mean annual temperature as that occurring at the Convent of St. Bernard, at an elevation of 8173 feet, in lat. 45 degrees 50' should therefore be met with at the level of the sea in lat. 75 degrees 50'.

In that part of the Cordilleras which falls within the tropics, the observations I made at various heights, at an elevation of upward of 19,000 feet, gave a decrease of 1 degree for every 341 feet; and my friend Boussingault found, thirty years afterward, as a mean result, 319 feet. By a comparison of places in the Cordilleras, lying at an equal elevation above the level of the sea, either on the declivities of the mountains or even on extensive elevated plateaux, I observed that in the latter there was an increase in the annual temperature varying from 2.7 degrees to 4.1 degrees.

This difference would be still greater if it were not for the cooling effect of nocturnal radiation. As the different climates are arranged in successive strata, the one above the other, from the cacao woods of the valleys to the region of perpetual snow, and as the temperature in the tropics varies but little throughout the year, we may form to ourselves a tolerably correct representation of the climatic relations to which the inhabitants of the large cities in the Andes are subjected, by comparing these climates with the temperatures of particular months in the plains of France and Italy. While p 329 the heat which prevails daily on the woody sh.o.r.es of the Orinoco exceeds by 7.2 degrees that of the month of August at Palermo, we find, on ascending the chain of the Andes, at Popayan, at an elevation of 3826 feet, the temperature of the three summer months of Ma.r.s.eilles; at Quito, at an elevation of 9541 feet, that of the close of May at Paris; and on the Paramos, at a height of 11,510 feet, where only stunted Alpine shrubs grow, though flowers still bloom in abundance, that of the beginning of April at Paris. The intelligent observer, Peter Martyr de Aughiera, one of the friends of Christopher Columbus, seems to have been the first who recognized (in the expedition undertaken by Rodrigo Enrique Colmenares, in October, 1510) that the limit of perpetual snow continues to ascend as we approach the equator. We read, in the fine work 'De Rebus Oceanicis',* "the River Gaira comes from a mountain in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria, which, according to the testimony of the companions of Colmenares, is higher than any other mountain hitherto discovered.

[footnote] *Anglerius, 'De Rebus Oceanicis', Dec. xi., lib. ii., p. 140 (ed. Col., 1574). In the Sierra de Santa Marta, the highest point of which appears to exceed 19,000 feet (see my 'Relat. Hist.', t. ii., p. 214), there is a peak that is still called Pico de Gaira.

It must undoubtedly be so if 'it retain snow perpetually' in a zone which is not more than 10 degrees from the equinoctial line." The lower limit of perpetual snow, in a given lat.i.tude, is the lowest line at which snow continues during summer, or, in other words, it is the maximum of height to which the snow-line recedes in the course of the year. But this elevation must be distinguished from three other phenomena, namely, the annual fluctuation of the snow-line, the occurrence of sporadic falls of snow, and the existence of glaciers, which appear to be peculiar to the temperate and cold zones. This last phenomenon, since Saussure's immortal work on the Alps, has received much light, in recent times, from the labors of Venetz, Charpentier, and the intrepid and persevering observer Aga.s.siz.

We know only the 'lower', and not the 'upper' limit of perpetual snow; for the mountains of the earth do not attain to those ethereal regions of the rarefied and dry strata of air, in which we may suppose, with Bouguer, that the vesicles of aqueous vapor are converted into crystals of ice, and thus rendered perceptible to our organs of sight. The lower limit of snow is not, however, a mere function of geographical lat.i.tude or of mean annual temperature; nor is it at the equator, or p 330 even, in the region of the tropics, that this limit attains its greatest elevation above the level of the sea. The phenomenon of which we are treating is extremely complicated, depending on the general relations of temperature and humidity, and on the form of the mountains. On submitting these relations to the test of special a.n.a.lysis, as we may be permitted to do from the number of determinations that have recently been made,* we shall find that the controlling causes are the differences in the temperature of different seasons of the year; the direction of the prevailing winds and their relations to this land and sea; the degree of dryness or humitidy in the upper strata of the air; the absolute thickness of the acc.u.mulated ma.s.ses of fallen snow; the relation of the s-line to the total height of the mountain; the relative position of the latter in the chain to which it belongs, and the steepness of its declivity; the vicinity of either summits likewise perpetually covered with show; the expansion, position, and elevation of the plains from which the snow mountain rises as an isolated peak or as a portion of a chain; whether this plain be part of the sea-coast, or of the interior of a continent; whether it be covered with wood or waving gra.s.s; and whether, finally, it consist of a dry and rocky soil, or of a wet and marshy bottom.

[footnote] *See my table of the height of the line of perpetual snow, in both hemispheres, from 71 degrees 15' north lat. to 53 degrees 54' south lat., in my 'Asie Centrale', t. iii., p. 360.