Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume I Part 284

The clear liquid is then poured upon the ground indigo, with the addition of the needful soda and lime. One kilo of indigo yields in this manner a very concentrated vat of from 10 to 15 litres. Cotton is dyed cold, and wool with the aid of heat. A vat is filled with water, and a suitable quant.i.ty of the above indigo mixture introduced, when the dyeing can be performed at once. The excess of the low sulphur acid dissolves the froth which appears on the surface. During the process of dyeing, further quant.i.ties of indigo can be added as required. Cotton can be rapidly and easily dyed in this manner; and in the case of wool, the dyer escapes the many disadvantages of the hot vat and obtains brighter and clearer shades.

To print a fast blue the alkaline solution of the reduced indigo is printed on with an excess of the reducing agent, aged for twelve to twenty-four hours, washed and soaped. In comparison with the old process there is a saving of indigo to the extent of 50 to 60 per cent.; the shades are richer and the impressions sharper. The colour requires no subsequent treatment, and can therefore be printed on simultaneously with most other colours.

_Obs._ Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may each be dyed blue in the indigo vat. The goods, after being pa.s.sed through a weak alkaline solution, are subjected to the action of the vat for about fifteen minutes; they are then freely exposed to the air; the immersion in the vat and the exposure are repeated until the colour becomes sufficiently deep. Wood and madder improve the richness of the dye. Other deoxidising substances, besides those above mentioned, may be used to effect the solution of the indigo; thus a mixture of caustic soda, grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often employed on the Continent for this purpose; and orpiment lime, and pearlash are also occasionally used. When properly prepared, the indigo vat may be kept in action for several months by the addition of one or other of its const.i.tuents, as required. An excess of either copperas or lime should be avoided.

2. Solution of sulphate of indigo is added to water, as required, and the goods, previously boiled with alum, are then immersed in it, and the boiling and immersion are repeated until the wool becomes sufficiently dyed.

_Obs._ With this every shade of blue may be dyed, but it is most commonly employed to give a ground to logwood blues. The colouring matter has affinity for woollen and silk with or without 'mordant,' but none for cotton. A solution of soluble indigo (sulphindylate of pota.s.sa or soda), in water very slightly acid with sulphuric acid, imparts a very fine blue to cloth, superior in tint to that given by the simple sulphate. See DYEING, &c.

=INDIGO PUR'PLE.= _Syn._ PHNICINE. The name given by Mr Crum to the purple precipitate obtained by filtration from a solution of indigo in fuming sulphuric acid, when largely diluted with water.

=INDIGO RED.= _Syn._ INDIGO RESIN, RED RESIN OF INDIGO. This is prepared by boiling alcohol (sp. gr. 830), on powdered indigo previously exhausted by digestion in dilute acids and in a strong alkaline solution. When heated, it is converted into a white sublimate (deoxidised indigo red), but recovers its red colour by the action of nitric acid.

=INDIGO WHITE.= _Syn._ INDIGOGENE, INDICYLE, REDUCED INDIGO, HYDROGENISED I., HYDRATE OF I. Reduced or deoxidised indigo blue.

_Prep._ The yellow alkaline solution obtained by one or other of the processes noticed under INDIGOTIN is carefully protected from the air, both before and after precipitation with hydrochloric acid; and the precipitate, after being rapidly washed with recently boiled distilled water, or with very dilute sulphurous acid, is drained on a filter, dried in vacuo, and then at once transferred to a well-stoppered bottle.

_Prop., &c._ A greyish-white ma.s.s of minute crystals, generally light blue on the surface, and rapidly turning blue on exposure to the air; soluble in alkalies, alcohol, and ether, to which it imparts a yellow colour.

These solutions deposit indigo blue on exposure to the air. A solution of this substance const.i.tutes the indigo vat of the dyer (see _above_).

=INDIGO'TIN.= _Syn._ CERULIN, INDIGO BLUE. This is the pure blue principle of indigo. It appears to be the oxide of the same organic radical of which indigo white is probably the hydrate.

_Prep._ 1. Indigo (in fine powder) is digested successively in dilute hydrochloric acid, solution of pota.s.sa, and alcohol; the dried residuum is crude indigotin.

2. Indigo (in fine powder), 1 part; green sulphate of iron, 2 parts; hydrate of lime, 3 parts; water, 15 parts; mix, agitate occasionally until the colour is destroyed, then decant the clear portion, precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid, and wash the powder first with water, and then with boiling alcohol, until the latter ceases to acquire a yellow colour.

3. Caustic soda and grape sugar, of each 1 part; water, 20 parts; powdered indigo, 5 parts; mix, and proceed as last. The above are essentially the same as the indigo vat, but on the small scale.

4. The process for estimating the value of indigo given under INDIGO is a good process for obtaining Indigotin.

_Obs._ The product from all the above exceeds 50% of the indigo operated on.

5. (Taylor.) Powdered indigo, 2 parts; plaster of Paris, 1 part; water, q.

s. to reduce the mixture to a thin paste; spread the ma.s.s evenly upon an oblong iron plate to the depth of about 1/8 inch, and dry it by a gentle heat. It must then be held over the flame of a spirit lamp, when a disgusting odour will be evolved, the ma.s.s will begin to smoke, and in a few minutes will be covered with a heavy purple vapour, which will condense into brilliant flattened prisms or plates of an intense copper colour, forming a thick velvety coating over the surface immediately exposed to the heat. Should the ma.s.s catch fire, it may be instantly extinguished by a drop of water let fall upon it. _Prod._ 15 to 18%. See INDIGO, &c.

=INDIUM.= IN. = 1134. This very rare metal was discovered by means of the spectroscope by Messrs Reich and Richter in a specimen of zinc-blende from Freiberg, in 1863. Since then it has been found in the flue dust of some zinc furnaces worked in the Hartz mountains, also in a black blende, known as christophite, occurring in Saxony; in the Wolfranc of Zinnwald, a.s.sociated with zinc, as well as in Wolfranc alone; and also in the blende met within steat.i.te, near Schlaggenwald. In all of these substances the indium is present in very minute quant.i.ty,[354] and is more or less a.s.sociated with lead, a.r.s.enic, cadmium, iron, and copper; its separation from which is matter of no inconsiderable labour and difficulty.

[Footnote 354: In the flue dust of the zinc furnaces it is present to the amount of about 01 per cent.; in christophite in the proportion of 00062 per cent.]

The following process for the detection of indium in zinc-blende, and its extraction from the same source, is given by Winkler. Precipitate the hydrochloric acid solution of the roasted ore with metallic zinc at the boiling heat; dissolve the precipitate in nitro-hydrochloric acid; remove the a.r.s.enic, cadmium, &c., by sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitate the indium as oxide by barium carbonate. Should this precipitate contain any iron, it must be removed by resolution, heating with sodium sulphate, and digestion with barium carbonate in a closed vessel. The indium may also be precipitated from the original solution, either directly by barium carbonate, or from a solution containing sulphuric acid, by neutralisation with sodium carbonate, till a precipitate begins to form, and addition of sodium acetate; it is then precipitated as a basic sulphate containing zinc."[355]

[Footnote 355: Various other processes are given in 'Watts' Dictionary.']

Indium may be obtained in the metallic state from the reduction of its oxide by means of hydrogen; charcoal or carbonaceous fluxes are not good reducing agents, as their employment necessitates a very high temperature, and loss from volatilisation occurs. Sodium is found to be the best reducing agent when large quant.i.ties of the metal are required.

Bottger's method is to precipitate the indium by zinc, to press the spongy metal so obtained in hot water, then to submit it to pressure in a screw press between filtering paper, and finally to melt it with cyanide of pota.s.sium.

_Prop._ Indium is a soft, white, durable metal, somewhat resembling cadmium, wholly dest.i.tute of crystalline structure. Its specific gravity, which is 7421 at 168 C., is not altered by rolling or hammering. When heated in the air to 176 C., it melts without becoming oxidised; at a temperature above this, however, it becomes covered with a coating of suboxide, becoming gradually changed into the yellow sesquioxide. Indium is less volatile than either cadmium or zinc. It dissolves slowly in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, hydrogen being given off. In strong hydrochloric acid it dissolves rapidly. Nitric acid oxidises it, evolving at the same time nitric oxide; whilst sulphuric acid converts it into anhydrous sulphate.

When examined by means of the spectroscope, the flame of indium reveals two brilliant bands--a violet and a blue one.

Indium is completely precipitated from a solution of its acetate, as well as from neutral solutions of its salts in general, by sulphuretted hydrogen. Ammonia, neutral sodium carbonate, and acid sodium carbonate, throw down white precipitates insoluble in excess of the precipitant; caustic potash and soda produce a white precipitate of indium hydrate, soluble in excess. Barium carbonate precipitates it completely. Pota.s.sium ferrocyanide gives a white precipitate.

_Estim._ "The most convenient method of estimating indium is by precipitating it as hydrate with ammonia, dissolving the washed precipitate in hot dilute nitric acid, evaporating, igniting, and weighing the oxide thus obtained. Precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen does not give exact results on account of the solubility of the indium sulphide."[356]

[Footnote 356: Watts.]

Indium forms compounds with bromine, chlorine, iodine, oxygen, and with several of the organic and inorganic acids.

=INDURA'TION.= In _pathology_, an increase in the consistence of any portion of the body, usually resulting from chronic inflammation, pressure, or friction.

=IN'FANCY.= "The domestic treatment of infants and children is comprised in the application of the laws of health to the mother as well as to the child. The position of parent is one of serious responsibility, both morally and physically, and the edict has gone forth that 'the sins of the parent shall be visited on the children.' If we could ensure good mothers, we could vastly improve the race of men. The nursing mother of a sick infant must, by following faithfully the rules of health in respect of the four great hygienic principles--food, clothing, exercise, and ablution--give health with her milk to her offspring; she must also pay close attention to her mind, avoid all sources of irritation and anxiety, and remember that an angry mother sours her milk, and produces a fractious and often a diseased infant. I am quite of opinion that if mothers were sound in const.i.tution, and bestowed the requisite care upon the maintenance of their health, we should hear little of diseases of children. In children, as well as in parent, the rules of health must be carried out," and their neglect cannot fail to bring with it a heavy retribution. (Eras. Wilson.) See EXERCISE, NURSING, &c.

=INFANT DEATH-RATE.= In England, according to Dr Farr, out of 1000 infants born, 149 die annually before reaching their first year; and the same authority tells us that 311 out of every 1000 die during the first month in the same period. Amongst illegitimate children, the lives of one half never exceed the first month.

The above figures represent the yearly average of infantile deaths throughout the whole of England, when we come to the large cities the mortality is notably higher. In Liverpool, for instance, out of 1000 children born, 239 died in their first year.

When we examine into the infant mortality prevailing amongst different cla.s.ses, we find the proportion existing between the death-rate of the children of the n.o.bility, and the general death-rate up to one year, to be as 3 to 8.

In 1874, Mr Charles Ansell, jun., published a work ent.i.tled 'Statistics of Families of the Upper and Professional Cla.s.ses,' in which he showed, from investigations into the deaths occurring amongst 48,000 children of the wealthy, professional, and t.i.tled cla.s.ses, that in the first year of life, about 80 only of such children die out of every 1000. According to Dr Farr, the northern countries of Europe show a much lower infant death-rate than the southern ones. Infant mortality is lowest in Norway, and highest in High Bavaria, where 404 infants per 1000 die in their first year. In New York, in 1869, the mortality amongst infants under one year old was 274 per cent. and in 1873, 310 per cent.

Both in France and England the mortality prevailing amongst illegitimate children up to the age of one year is very large. In 1860, the death-rate amongst the foundlings of the Loire-Inferieure, was as much as 876 in the 1000, and it averages between 500 and 700 in France. In Wakefield, amongst the same cla.s.s of children, it was 2622 per cent.; in Coventry, 40; in Padstow, 50; and in Bantry, 80; in manufacturing towns the average is 35 per cent. In London the number of illegitimate children who die annually under the age of a year is probably about 75 per cent.[357]

[Footnote 357: 'Proceedings of the Obstetrical Society for 1870.']

In the Montreal Foundling Asylum, out of 4060 infants, only 7 per cent.

lived one year. In the rural districts of England and also in Bavaria, the average of deaths at one year is about the same for the illegitimate as for the legitimate children.

In the 'Transactions of the Obstetrical Society for 1870' there is a valuable and interesting report, throwing much light on the condition and treatment of the children of the poor in England. The following is the substance of this report, the information contained in which was collected by various members of the society:--It was found that amongst the poorer populations of villages 30 to 90 per cent. are attended by midwives, and that this custom prevails to an almost equal extent in the large provincial and manufacturing towns. Thus in Glasgow, 75 per cent., in Coventry, 90 per cent.; and in Leeds and Sheffield, equally large numbers of the population employ the services of these women. In Edinburgh the midwife is rarely called on; neither is she in the West End of London; but in the East End 30 to 50 per cent. of the accouchements are undertaken by women.

Except in Glasgow, Sheffield, and London, the women are a.s.serted to be totally ignorant and incompetent to meet any difficulty that might arise.

In country districts the pernicious custom of giving an aperient to a newly born babe was very general, but less prevalent in London and the large towns. Amongst the married poor, suckling was found to be the rule; and it seemed to be pretty conclusively proved that it is often unreasonably prolonged for eighteen months or even two years, as a preventive to renewed pregnancy. It was found, however, that illegitimate children were rarely suckled, but almost always fed on artificial food.

Amongst the married poor also it appears universal to give the children artificial food as well as the breast, and this from a very early and tender age. Further, it was found that the food was generally unsuited to the child both in quant.i.ty and quality. It consisted chiefly of bread soaked in water and milk, and sweetened, of arrow-root, sago and corn flour, and such like objectionable substances.

In one case the mother admitted to giving her infant (who was a few months old only) a diet similar to that she herself partook of, viz.--cheese, bread, meat, salt fish, heavy pastry, vegetables and beer. Amongst the upper cla.s.ses it was ascertained that there is an increasing tendency amongst mothers to discontinue lactation, and to employ instead the services of a wet nurse; and where this was not done, it was found that the food partaken of by the babe was much more judiciously chosen than is the case amongst the poorer women. Mr Curquiven and others observed that a large number of women in London do not suckle their offspring, because of a deficient secretion of milk. It is satisfactory to find that both in the manufacturing and agricultural districts, the children of the poor are so constantly in the open air; but equally unsatisfactory to learn that at night they sleep in ill-ventilated and over crowded dormitories. The infant is encouraged to sleep to the utmost, and should it fail in securing renewed slumber (its waking being attributed to a desire for food), is very often dosed with gin, syrup of poppies, and paregoric.

Another plan adopted for keeping infants quiet, consisted in letting them remain in the cradles and allowing them to suck the nipple attached to the empty feeding bottle, long after the food had been consumed; a practice that gives rise to infantile dyspepsia.

As regards cleanliness, it was learnt that poor people's children are tolerably well attended to in this respect, or rather that the baby generally comes in for a larger share of ablution than the elder ones, who are sometimes much neglected in the matter of soap and water. The clothing of the little ones was much too scanty, and this was the case no matter what the season of the year. A prevalent practice, except in the agricultural villages, was that of giving the children cordials, spirits, and medicines.

A still worse custom was found to be the systematic administration of opiates. At Long Sutton, in Lincolnshire, which has a population of 6000, one chemist alone sold 25-1/2 gallons yearly of G.o.dfrey's cordial (a mixture princ.i.p.ally consisting of treacle and opium), whilst 6-1/2 pints were got rid of weekly by another chemist in the same town. This administration of anodynes was mostly confined to illegitimate infants, and factory children placed out to nurse. A habit not unusual was that of an intentional deferring sending for a doctor when the child was first seized with illness, medical advice being only sought when in many cases it could be of no avail. Desertion by fathers and mothers of their children, especially of illegitimate ones, as well as concealment of birth and infanticide, were found to be much more general in London and the larger cities than in the country.

The causes of the high rate of infant mortality prevailing amongst the poor, seem very clearly indicated in the above abstract. For instance, the deaths of nearly half the children under one year of age are referable to diarrha, convulsions, atrophy, mesenteric disease, and allied disorders; all of which maladies are caused by the grossly erroneous and unsuitable diet upon which the children are fed. In the article "Infants' Food," we have already pointed out that the proper and only safe aliment for an infant up to the age of eight or nine months is the maternal milk, and failing this, the pure and unadulterated milk of the cow; and we have furthermore shown that the admission into the dietary of infants even above nine months old, of farinaceous foods, should be regulated with great caution. Yet we learn from the above report, that in the early days of the infants' existence, amongst the poor the breast milk is in most cases supplemented by large quant.i.ties of these very farinaceous matters, which we have shown to be so prejudicial and dangerous. That the deaths from these causes are clearly preventable, in a large measure, if not wholly, is proved by the very much less extent in which they occur amongst the higher cla.s.ses, who use much greater judgment in the selection of their children's food. Another important factor in the high infant death-rate is the extensive use of narcotics, a practice there is no doubt which yearly carries off a large number of infants, by poisoning, more or less prolonged. Inadequate clothing is likewise another source of mortality amongst the very young, whose tender frames easily succ.u.mb to inclement weather, and the sudden changes of temperature occurring in our variable climate. Hence we shall have no difficulty in understanding why pneumonia, bronchitis, &c., should be so prevalent among poor children.

The habits of overcrowding and bad ventilation which prevail amongst the poor must also be fertile sources of disease amongst their offspring--the more immediate effect of such violations of sanitary principles resulting in bronchitis. That the extensive recourse by the poor to uneducated and unskilful midwives, also adds to infant mortality, seems indisputable.

In the report already alluded to, beyond reference to the fact that infanticide was rare, we find no mention made as to the number of violent deaths occurring amongst infants. It appears that about a sixteenth of the mortality amongst infants under one year old is due to violence, mostly accidental, the great majority of such deaths being caused by the mother lying upon and smothering her babe. These misadventures are said to occur mostly on Sat.u.r.day nights, and raise the question as to whether a large proportion of such deaths are not due to the drunkenness of the mothers, who retire to rest in a state of alcoholic stupor.[358]

[Footnote 358: Blythe.]

The inference, we think, to be drawn from the above statements is, that the preponderating mortality prevailing amongst the children of the poor is due to ignorance and poverty, and not to intentional neglect or want of parental affection. Bearing in mind that poor women much more frequently suckle their babes than rich ones, it might perhaps be argued that this was evidence of greater maternal solicitude, and that, therefore, the poor mother exhibits more natural affection than the lady who consigns her offspring to the arms of the wet-nurse; but, possibly, were the circ.u.mstances of the two inverted, the lady might be found giving her infant the breast, whilst the humbler wife might call in the services of the wet-nurse; neither of them perhaps reflecting that, in choosing the latter alternative, they were depriving another little human unit of the maternal sustenance, and exposing it to the dangers of vicarious nurture and supervision. What these dangers are that beset the children of the poor when removed from their mother, the revelations of baby-farming and the appalling statistics of illegitimate infant mortality serve very forcibly to ill.u.s.trate. For every 311 legitimate children of all cla.s.ses 500 illegitimate out of every 1000 die each year under one month old, this large increase being due to cruel neglect and subst.i.tution of bad, insufficient, and improper food for the maternal milk. That in their own homes they are exposed to the serious hardships arising from errors in diet has already been shown, but in their own homes they die at little more than half this rate; hence the deduction is unavoidable that half of these poor little waifs perish because they are deprived of the care and solicitude of the mother.