Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume I Part 194

=Eau Tonique de Chalmin= is a perfumed solution of tannin.

=Eau Tonique Parachte des Cheveux.= To prevent the falling off of the hair. Macerate some pieces of violet root for some days in 120 grammes rose water, filter, and add to the fluid 2 decigrammes sulphate of iron, 3 drops vinegar, 13 gramme each of tincture of benzoin and balsam of Peru, 75 grammes Provence oil, and 10 drops oil of bergamot. (Dr Ca.s.selmann.)

=Eau Virginale= (Chable). Lead acetate, zinc sulphate, of each 1 part; distilled water, 28 parts; eau de Cologne, 12 parts. Dissolve and mix; allow to stand for a month and filter. A spoonful mixed with a gla.s.s of water to be used as a v.a.g.i.n.al injection. (Reveil.)

=Eaux=, in perfumery, are solutions of the fragrant essential oils in spirit, as eau de Cologne, eau de bouquet, &c.; or they are distilled waters, largely charged with the odorous principles of plants, as eau de rose, eau de fleurs d'oranges, &c.

=Eaux=, of the liqueuriste, are aromatised spirits or cordials.

=EB'LANINE.= The yellowish-red, crystallisable, solid substance, which is left behind in the retort, when wood spirit is rectified from quicklime.

It is insoluble in water, and sublimes without fusion at 273 Fahr.

=EBONITE.= The only difference between this and vulcanite, consists in the colouring materials used. See CAOUTCHOUC.

=EB'ONY.= The wood of the _Diospyrus Melanoxylon_, an East Indian tree, of the natural order _Ebenaceae_. Two other species of the same genus, namely, _Diospyrus Ebenus_ and _D. Ebenaster_, yields respectively MAURITIUS EBONY and the b.a.s.t.a.r.d EBONY of Ceylon. Pale-coloured woods are stained in imitation of ebony (FACt.i.tIOUS EBONY), by washing them with or steeping them in a strong decoction of logwood or of galls, and, when dry, washing them over with a solution of sulphate or acetate of iron. They are then rinsed in clean water, and the process is repeated, if required. The wood is lastly polished or varnished.

=EBRI'ETY.= See INTOXICATION.

=EBULLI"TION.= The state of boiling, or the agitation of a liquid arising from its rapid conversion into vapour by heat. Ebullition occurs in different liquids at very different temperatures, such temperatures being called their 'boiling-points.' Under the same circ.u.mstances the boiling-points are constant, and by observing them the chemist is often able to distinguish liquids which much resemble each other. The boiling-point of the same liquid may, however, vary considerably under different circ.u.mstances. The causes which induce variation are increased or diminished atmospheric pressure, the greater or less depth of the liquid, and the character of the containing vessel. Thus boiling water is colder by some degrees when the barometer is low, in bad weather, or at the top of a hill, than when the barometer is higher, in fine weather, or at the bottom of a valley or mine. There is a very simple and beautiful experiment, ill.u.s.trative of the effect of diminished pressure in lowering the boiling-point of a liquid. A little water is made to boil for a few minutes in a flask or retort placed over a lamp, until the air has been expelled, and the steam issues freely from the neck. A tightly fitting cork is then inserted, and the lamp at the same moment withdrawn. When the ebullition ceases, it may be renewed at pleasure for a considerable time by the affusion of cold water, which, by condensing the vapour within, occasions a partial vacuum. Liquids in general boil from 60 to 140 lower than their ordinary boiling-points when heated _in vacuo_.

The following table furnishes very exact information respecting the effect of increasing pressure upon the boiling-point of water:--

Boiling water contained in a deep vessel is hotter than that in a shallow one, on account of the greater resistance in the one case than the other to the escape of the steam. It is also found that fluids boil at a lower temperature and more quietly in vessels with rough and spicular surfaces, than in those with smooth or polished ones. The boiling-point of water, as marked on the scale of the thermometer, is 212 Fahr., but in gla.s.s vessels, under common circ.u.mstances, it varies from

TABLE I.--_Boiling-points of Water at different Pressures._ By Mr C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS.

--------------+-----------+---------------+----------- Boiling-point Barometer Boiling-point Barometer Fahr. Inches. Fahr. Inches.

--------------+----------- ---------------+----------- 184 16676 200 23454 185 17047 201 23937 186 17421 202 24441 187 17803 203 25014 188 18196 204 25468 189 18593 205 25992 190 18992 206 26529 191 19407 207 27068 192 19822 208 27614 193 20254 209 28183 194 20687 210 28744 195 21124 211 29331 196 21576 212 29922 197 22030 213 30516 198 22498 214 31120 199 22965 215 31730 --------------+-----------+---------------+-----------

212254 to 2156; whilst in perfectly pure and smooth gla.s.s vessels water may be heated to 221 Fahr. without boiling. That the elevation of the boiling-point in this case is due to the nature of the surface, may be at once demonstrated by throwing into water, about to boil in a gla.s.s matra.s.s, a little iron filings or coa.r.s.ely powdered gla.s.s, when ebullition will commence with almost explosive violence, at the same time that the temperature of the fluid will sink about 2 Fahr.

The boiling-point of water contained in ordinary vessels may be raised considerably above 212 Fahr., by the addition of saline matter, as will be seen in the following table, extracted from Mr C. G. Williams's excellent 'Handbook of Chemical Manipulation,'--

TABLE II.--_Boiling-points of Saturated Solutions of various Salts at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure._ By C. G. WILLIAMS.

Name of Salt. Boiling-point.

Chloride of calcium 355 Fahr.

Acetate of soda 256 "

Nitrate of soda 246 "

Sal-ammoniac 236 "

Common salt 224 "

Cream of tartar 214 "

The above solutions are suitable for chemical baths. With the exception of the first, they furnish in their boiling-points temperatures, as nearly as can be obtained, 10 above each other. They were chosen by Mr Williams because, in 'fractionating' volatile substances, it is usual to separate the distilled products by differences of temperature equal to 10 Fahr. In long operations it is found inconvenient to employ a saturated saline solution for a bath (by which the highest temperature would be obtained), as the constant evaporation of the water induces the crystallisation of the salt. It is hence usual to keep it considerably below that point.

The following table, compiled chiefly from the pages of Dr Miller's 'Elements of Chemistry,' gives the boiling-points of several interesting substances.

TABLE III.--_Boiling-points of various Liquids at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure._

Name of Substance. Boiling-point.

Liquid carbonic acid -108 Fahr.

Liquid sulphurous acid + 176 "

Chloric ether 519 "

Aldehyd 694 "

Ether 948 "

Bisulphide of carbon 1185 "

Bromide 1454 "

Wood spirit 1499 "

Alcohol (sp. gr. 815) 1731 "

Benzol 1768 "

Dutch liquid 1847 "

Acetic acid 2431 "

Sulphur (melted) 609 "

Mercury 662 "

=EBUL'LIOSCOPE.= _Syn._ EBULLITION ALCOHOLOMETER, THERMO-ALCOHOLOMETER.

"This instrument is essentially a thermometer, and its application to alcoholometry is based upon the fact that the boiling-point of a spiritous liquid is scarcely altered by the presence, within certain limits, of the substances which may be dissolved in it, and which, by increasing its specific gravity, render the ordinary alcoholometers or hydrometers useless for the purpose of indicating its alcoholic richness. The ebullioscope was invented by the Abbe Brossard-Vidal, of Toulon, and in its original form consisted of a spirit-lamp surmounted by a small boiler, into which a large cylindrical gla.s.s bulb was plunged, having an upright stem of such calibre that the quicksilver contained in them, by its expansion and ascent when heated, raised before it a little gla.s.s float in the stem, which was connected by a thread with a similar gla.s.s bead, hanging in the air. This thread pa.s.sed round a pulley, which, turning with the motion of the beads, caused an index to move along a graduated circular scale, which represented on its face the per-centage of absolute alcohol in spirituous liquors of different boiling-points. This form of the apparatus being found inconvenient and liable to get disarranged, various improvements were made in it by MM. Conaty, Lerebour, and others.

The modification of the instrument now in use, and known as Field's PATENT ALCOHOLOMETER, was made by the late Dr Ure, and can scarcely be improved on. It consists of a thermometer having a very minute bore and a large bulb, similar to that employed to determine the height of mountains from the boiling-point of water, but instead of thermometric degrees being marked upon the scale the per-centage under proof is placed on the left-hand side of the stem, and the per-centage content of proof spirit on the right-hand side. These commence at 1785 Fahr., the temperature at which 'proof spirit' boils, and which here forms the bottom of the scale.

The succeeding number are based upon the boiling-points of mixtures of alcohol and water. The little boiler being charged, and about a teaspoonful of salt (35 gr.) being added, to prevent loss of alcohol by evaporation, the thermometer is set in its place, and the spirit-lamp lighted. When the mercury begins to rise out of the bulb of the thermometer, the 'damper-plate' is pushed in a little way, to moderate the heat. The eye is now kept steadily on the instrument, and as soon as the liquor boils freely, and the mercury becomes stationary in the stem, the indication is carefully noted, and the damper-plate pushed home to extinguish the flame.

"The ebullioscope is adjusted to the mean boiling-point of water under an atmospheric pressure of 295 inches. When the pressure is either higher or lower, both water and alcohol boil at a somewhat different temperature, to meet which a barometrical equation is attached to the thermometer by means of a small subsidiary scale. It is therefore necessary, prior to commencing the operation of testing any liquor, to charge the little boiler with pure water only, and to fix the thermometer in its place. When the water boils freely, the mercury becomes stationary in the stem, exactly opposite the true barometrical indication at the time. Should this be against the line 295, no correction will be required; but should it stand at any other line, above or below, then the various boiling-points will bear reference to that boiling-point only. In the latter case, the boiling-point of the water on the barometrical indicator must be set against the boiling-point of the liquid on the scale, when opposite the line--295 will be found the true strength. Thus:--the barometer being at 30 inches, and the indication or boiling-point being 72 u. p., 30 on the indicator must be placed against 72 u. p. on the thermometer, when against the line of 295 will be seen 696 u. p., the real strength of the sample tested.

"When a spirit is stronger than the 'excise proof,' its boiling-point varies too little with its alterations of strength to render the ebullioscope of much practical value. To make it applicable to the stronger spirits, it is therefore necessary to dilute them with exactly their own bulk of pure water before testing them, and then to double the resulting indication, as suggested by Dr Ure. Our own plan is always to do this when the spirit is stronger than 20 u. p.

"By means of the ebullioscope the alcoholic content of beer, wines, and spirits, of every variety and cla.s.s, may be readily determined with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes; and by methods which we shall hereafter point out, the amount of saccharine extractive, or sugar, in cordialised spirit, malt liquors and wines, may also be ascertained.

"The ebullioscope (Field's ALCOHOLOMETER) employed by us in numerous and extensive investigations connected with public hygiene, was made by Mr Long, of Little Tower Street, and is an instrument which should be in the hands of every wine and spirit merchant and licensed victualler, as well as every private gentleman who feels interested in the quality of the liquors in his cellar. The instrument is accompanied by a useful little pamphlet of directions and tables, which has been very accurately got up, as we understand, by the late Dr Ure, expressly for Mr Long." (A. J.

Cooley.)

=ECHINOCOCCUS HOMINIS.= This creature, which is the larva of the _Tinaea Echinococcus_, is a very common parasite infesting man, and has been found in the human lungs, heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, ovaries, b.r.e.a.s.t.s, membrane of the throat, and the bones. The disease to which it gives rise is of a very long and painful nature, frequently terminating fatally, and one in which no remedies have hitherto been found of any avail. The part of the human economy most frequently attacked by the ravages of the Echinococcus is the liver, in the substance of which it gives rise to the formation of a hydatid tumour. This tumour is composed of a thick-walled cyst or bag, within which is another of a much more delicate texture.

"This latter membrane is the mother-sac of the Echinococcus embryo"

(Huxley), and corresponds with the germinal membrane of Professor Goodsir.

It is studded with innumerable transparent cells, varying as extremes of measurement from 1/10000th to 1/3000th of an inch. It is the seat of development of innumerable Echinococci, and to this membrane, in a fresh hydatid tumour, they are found connected by a delicate membrane, either singly, or more commonly in cl.u.s.ters, the number of individuals on the cl.u.s.ter varying from 10 to 100 or more, as shown in the annexed woodcut."[271]

[Footnote 271: Aitken.]

[Ill.u.s.tration]

The size of the embryo varies from 1/18th to 1/20th of a line to 1/10th to 1/18th, according as it is elongated or contracted. Fig. 2 represents two Echinococci. In the one the head is drawn within the vehicle, and in the other it is extruded.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 2.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 3.]

Fig. 3 represents a transverse view of an echinococcus; S S are suctorial discs; the hooklets may be seen encircling a membranous disk.