Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume I Part 181

"The animals seem to have an instinct for disinfection, and lick substances touched with this acid. They must not be allowed to drink it, as when strong it blisters the skin, and especially the mouth and tongue."

Mr Crookes also tried the effect of the acid by injecting it into the veins of the animals, and thus details the results of his experiments:--"It appeared evident that if harm were to follow the injection of carbolic acid, the mischievous effect would be immediate; but that if the fluid could pa.s.s through the heart without exerting its paralysing action on that organ, and could get into the circulation, no present ill effects need be antic.i.p.ated. I therefore determined to push these experiments as far as possible, increasing the quant.i.ty of carbolic acid, until it produced a fatal result.

The next operation was on cow No. 11, in which 3 oz. of solution (containing 52-1/2 gr. of pure carbolic acid) were very slowly injected; no bad effect followed. Increasing the dose, cow No. 12 had injected into her vein 4-1/2 oz. of solution (equal to 78-3/4 gr. of carbolic acid); this also was followed by no immediate ill effect. Cow No. 13 was then treated with 6 oz. of solution (containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid), in two portions of 3 oz. each, five minutes' interval elapsing between each injection. The first 3 oz. produced a slight trembling, but not so severe as in the case of cow No. 10, as she seemed better in a few minutes. The second dose of 3 oz. was injected. This proved too much, or was pumped in too hurriedly, for almost before I had finished the animal trembled violently, its eyes projected, its breathing became laborious, it fell down and expired. The result could scarcely be attributed to the accidental injection of air into the vein, for the distress began with the injection of the first syringeful, and was only increased by the second; nor is it likely that this accident would happen twice consecutively. I was particularly careful on this point, and the construction of the instrument rendered such an occurrence scarcely possible with ordinary precaution. It is probable that the injection was performed too rapidly, or that the vital powers were lower than usual. In the case of the remaining animal, No. 14, I decided to inject as large a dose as it would bear, stopping the operation at the first sign of trembling, and delivering the liquid very gradually. The first syringeful caused no bad symptoms, and I had just finished injecting the second dose when trembling commenced. It was rather violent for a short time, but soon went off, and in five minutes the animal appeared as well as before.

This cow, therefore, bore without inconvenience the injection of 6 oz. of a 4 per cent. solution, containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid. Careful observations with the thermometer were taken before each operation. There were no more diseased beasts on the farm, or I should have carried my experiments still further. On visiting the farm the next day I was told that all the animals seemed better, and on testing them with the thermometer that statement was confirmed. I gave directions that each animal was to be drenched with half a wine-gla.s.sful (1 oz.) of carbolic acid in a quart of warm water every morning, but in other respects they might be treated as Mr Tomlinson, a skilful cow doctor, should direct.

"Business now calling me to London, I was unable to watch the further progress of these cases.

"This is to be regretted, as a series of daily thermometric observations would have been of great value in suggesting further experiments. I had, however, frequent accounts sent me. Cow No. 14 continued to improve slowly until convalescent; she is now quite well. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 remained apparently in the same state for four days; they then changed for the worse, and died. It is not improbable that had I been able to inject a further quant.i.ty of carbolic acid during the four days in which they were thus hovering between recovery and relapse, it would have turned the scale, and some of them at all events would be now alive and well.

The following table gives the thermometric observations;--

_Table showing the results of injecting carbolic acid into the blood of animals suffering from the cattle plague._

+-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+ Grains of Temperature No. Carbolic before Second Third Acid Injection Day. Day. Injected. +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+ F. F. 10 26-1/2 1054 1038 Better. Died on 6th day. 11 52-1/2 1038 1028 " Died on 6th day. 12 78-3/4 1048 1044 " Died on 6th day. 14 105 1037 1031 " Recovered. +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+

If future experiments prove that injection of carbolic acid or other antiseptic will do good, it is an operation very easily performed. I have injected five animals, and taken thermometric observations within an hour.

Sulphite or bisulphite of soda apparently occasions some pain, as the animals struggle very much; with carbolic acid I found them tolerably quiet. I have calculated the proportion which the carbolic acid bore to the whole quant.i.ty of blood in these operations. Taking the whole amount of blood in the animal at 150 lbs., there were injected into--

No. 10, 1 part of carb. acid, in 40,000 of blood.

" 11, " " 20,000 "

" 12, " " 13,300 "

" 14, " " 10,000 "

It is worth mentioning incidentally, that in the case of cow No. 14 (which recovered) the proportion of carbolic acid injected into the blood would have been enough to keep from decomposition the whole quant.i.ty of that liquid for a considerable time. In Nos. 10, 11, and 12 the proportion of carbolic acid would probably not have been sufficient for that purpose. I am informed by Dr Calvert that cresylic acid has much less coagulating power on alb.u.men than carbolic acid, and my own experiments entirely confirm this statement."

We have described under "CHARCOAL" the disinfecting properties of that substance. These properties have been turned to excellent account by Dr Stenhouse, who has invented a charcoal respirator, which, causing the wearer to breathe air drawn through a layer of that substance, and by thus depriving the air so inspired of any noxious gases or exhalations, if present, becomes, if worn in an infected atmosphere, a great safeguard against disease. Dr Letheby was accustomed to use a charcoal respirator when a.n.a.lysing dead bodies and other putrid matters of suspected poisoning, and by so doing never experienced any ill effects, nor was he conscious of the offensive odour which but for its adoption he must have encountered.

Professor Tyndall has suggested for the same purpose a respirator of cotton wool, by means of which the air, being filtered before it enters the lungs, becomes deprived of minute particles of various substances suspended in it, as well as of the germs, which so many pathologists believe to be always present during the prevalence of epidemic maladies, and the cause, when inhaled, of the maladies themselves.

=DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.= The sanitary authorities of most large cities have made provision for the purification of mattresses, linen, wearing apparel, &c., by means of disinfecting chambers or ovens, in which receptacles the infected articles are subjected for a certain time to hot air. The simplest form of apparatus for this purpose, and one that could be used on an emergency, provided the articles to be disinfected were not too bulky, is a baker's oven. The drying closet of a good laundry would be so far unsafe, because it would occasionally fail to give a heat sufficient for the destruction of the noxious principles.

The disinfecting chambers employed in Liverpool are arched ovens of solid brickwork, having a depth of 7 feet from front to back, a width of 5 feet from side to side, and a height of 6-1/2 feet from the floor to the crown of the arch. The doors are made of wrought iron, tightly fitting into cast-iron framework. The floors are made of double iron gratings, having alternate openings, so arranged as to admit at pleasure hot air into the chamber. At the top of the arch there is an opening fitted with an iron valve, by which the air of the chamber escapes into an exhausting shaft which is connected with the chimney. The heating is accomplished by means of a cast-iron c.o.c.kle, the smoke from which escapes by two cast-iron smoke flues, which, after forming a coil for the purpose of affording as great a heating surface as possible, pa.s.s along the hot-air pa.s.sage under the chamber, into a chimney situated at the opposite end.

The cold air is drawn into a brick flue placed underneath the floor of the stokehole into a cavity on each side of the c.o.c.kle, and thence into a s.p.a.ce underneath the chamber, whence it becomes heated by the radiation from the surface of the two cast iron flues. From this cavity or pa.s.sage it is conveyed at will through the gratings as already described. At the entrance of the cold air flue there is a damper, by which the temperature of the air may be regulated. A heat equal to 280 F. has been registered in this chamber, and as high as 380 in a drying closet over the c.o.c.kle.

Dr French, the medical officer of health for Liverpool, says "that, if necessary, a temperature reaching 500 F. can be attained in these chambers; but this temperature is of course never employed. Experience has proved that from 220 to 250 F. is the most suitable. Instances have been known where fabrics, after being exposed for some length of time to a temperature above 212 F., have sustained injury from being scorched.

In some of the chambers, carbolic acid powder is sprinkled on the floor.

We have taken the liberty of transcribing the following description and plates ill.u.s.trative of the disinfecting stove used in the Royal Victoria Yard, Deptford, from that very useful publication, 'Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and a.n.a.lytical,' published by Mr W. Mackenzie.

"This stove consists of a brick chamber with a slightly arched roof, and an iron movable floor in two pieces. The chamber is 7 feet deep, 6 feet 9 inches wide, and 5 feet 8-1/2 inches high in the centre of the arch. It is heated by a flue below the iron floor pa.s.sing round 3 sides of the chamber and up a chimney. There is an opening in the upper part of the chamber in its centre, which pa.s.ses along in the roof to the side, from thence down in the wall entering beneath the fire; this carries away any of the foul air of the clothes from the chamber through the fire and up the flue. This proceeding takes place after the clothes have been in the chamber say an hour and a half in the following manner:--The damper in the foul air shaft is withdrawn, and the furnace door is shut; any draught that gets to the fire comes to the chamber. Over the opening into the furnace is a square opening, fitted with a gla.s.s, inside of which is a fixed thermometer. When this shows a temperature of 200 F., the interior of the chamber is at 250 F., the highest point at which it is allowed to be. In the interior of the chamber at the sides there are little movable cranes, three rows of three supporting rods of iron on which wooden trays rest, and on which the clothes are placed when the iron cart is not used. The cranes move fore and aft to be out of the way when the cart is used. The cart is of iron on wheels, and runs into the chamber on tramways to keep it in position; in the interior of the cart are three iron trays for laying the clothes on.

The lowest tray is always the hottest, so that it is prudent to use the cart, the iron bottom of which prevents burning. The iron ends of the cart are removed when it is placed in the chamber; so is the handle. It is usual to keep the clothes at the temperature of 250 F. for two hours.

There is a trap door 8 inches square about 14 inches above the upper edge of the furnace, and on a level with the iron floor of the chamber, for disinfectants. Carbolic acid and sulphur are used; the former is placed on a flat plate, the latter is sprinkled over the floor. These are used as the last, and after that has been the clothes are fit to be used without danger to any one.

_Elevation plan_ (fig. 5) shows the front of the chamber with the doors closed; the openings (Nos. 1, 2, and 3) are for inserting the long thermometer, which is pushed into the clothing to be disinfected; they correspond with the three trays. The thermometer can be withdrawn and examined without allowing much cold air to enter; plugs fit into these three openings when not used for the thermometer.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

_Section._--The chamber is shown about the centre of its depth; the foul-air shaft (B) pa.s.ses along the roof down the side wall, and beneath the fire (C); the opening where the fixed thermometer is placed is marked with dotted lines. The damper for the foul-air shaft (E) is represented as shut, and the damper for the chimney (F) is also shut.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

_The ground plan_ shows the flue beneath the iron plates, which form the floor of the chamber, the dotted lines showing the foul-air flue (B), as it pa.s.ses beneath the fire. In the flue (C) there are openings at D, D, D, for the purpose of cleaning it.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Another form of disinfecting chamber is that invented by Dr Esse, of Berlin, and employed in that city. The apparatus consists of two iron cylinders, one fitted within the other, with a s.p.a.ce between, into which steam under pressure is introduced. The outer cylinder is surrounded with wood and the top with felt, to prevent the escape of heat. The articles to be disinfected are put in at the top of the inner cylinder, the inside of which soon becomes heated up by the surrounding steam. A pulley is used to lift the lid of the inner cylinder, around which the clothes are hung on pegs, not being allowed to touch the side of the cylinder. At the top of the inside cylinder is a bra.s.s box pierced with holes at the bottom, which dips a little way down, through which the air from the interior can rise.

In this box the bulb of a thermometer being placed, the temperature of the inner chamber can be registered.

When the steam condenses in the s.p.a.ce between the cylinders it is carried off by means of a valve, which is lifted when the water reaches a certain point in the condenser. In an hour's time the temperature of the interior cylinder can be raised to 235 Fahr.

For heating mattresses another apparatus has been devised by Dr Esse. It consists of an iron case with a spiral steam pipe in the centre, the steam inside the pipe being compressed to two atmospheres.

Dr Ransome has invented, for the use of the Nottingham hospital, a gas stove in the form of an iron box, well packed with a non-conducting material, which surrounds the outside. A channel leads to the interior of the box, and inside this channel gas is kept burning in such a manner by a modification of Kemp's regulator, that the temperature of the box shall range day and night between 235 and 255 Fahr.

An apparatus put to great use by the Holborn District Board during the epidemic of smallpox in 1871 was one made by Fraser's patent. Mr Fraser's disinfecting chamber consists of an oven or receptacle made of brick, with doors in front. Situated on the lower portion of this chamber is a covered furnace connected with flues, by means of which the interior s.p.a.ce is heated to the desired temperature. By a particular arrangement the air laden with the noxious vapours given off by the tainted clothing is conveyed into the furnace, and so consumed. Belonging to the apparatus is a covered truck or cart, fitted with doors and dampers, and provided inside with racks and shelves for holding the materials to be purified, which are thus brought from the infected dwelling and placed, truck and all, inside the chamber. The infected materials, as well as the truck containing them, are then heated to the necessary point, disinfection being a.s.sisted by sulphurous acid gas, or some other material adapted for the purpose. When the process is finished the carriage with its contents is drawn back to the house from which they were originally taken, and the purified articles are restored to the owners. It will be seen that by this arrangement the vehicle is disinfected as well as the clothes it contains.

=DISLOCA'TION.= _Syn._ LUXATION; DISLOCATIO, L. The forcible displacement of a bone from its socket, either by violence or disease. The latter happens when the textures forming the joint have been destroyed by some independent organic affection. "A considerable share of anatomical knowledge is required to detect the nature of these accidents; and it is much to be lamented that students neglect to inform themselves sufficiently on the subject." (Sir A. Cooper.) In common cases the bones may be frequently replaced by forcibly extending the limb. This should be done as early as possible, and before inflammation sets in. The latter should be combated by aperients, local bleeding, refrigerant lotions, &c.

Dislocations frequently exist without the fact being suspected, the swelling and inflammation being referred to other causes.

=DISPLACE'MENT.= See PERCOLATION.

=DISTEM'PER.= A disease among dogs, usually characterised by a running from the nose and eyes, and a short dry cough; followed by wasting of the flesh, and loss of strength and spirits. At length the brain suffers, and fits, paralysis of the extremities, or convulsions come on. Laxatives and emetics are the best remedies. If there is much diarrha, astringents may be afterwards given. The violence of the fits may be mitigated by the administration of antispasmodics, and by the warm bath. The distemper is a contagious disease, and is generally fatal to weakly and very young dogs.

Fits in the advanced stages of the disease are seldom followed by recovery. Impatience of light, red eyes, obstinate diarrha, spasmodic twitchings, a yellow colour of the skin, and a pustular eruption, are also bad symptoms.

=Distemper Powders (Blane's).= The basis of these is said to be '_aurum musivum_,' or bisulphide of tin. That of another advertised nostrum is a mixture of mercury and chalk, with a little rhubarb and ipecacuanha.

=DISTILLA'TION.= The evaporation and subsequent condensation of the vapour of fluids, by means of a still and refrigerator, or other similar apparatus. DRY DISTILLATION is a term applied to the distillation of substances _per se_, or without the addition of water or other volatile fluid. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION is the distillation of substances at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose them, by which their elements are separated, or evolved in new combinations. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION is the separation of substances having different boiling-points, by distilling the mixture with a gradually increasing heat, and collecting the products which come over at different temperatures in separate receivers. See HYDROCARBON, STILL, &c.

=Distillation.= The art of the distiller; the manufacture of spirituous liquors as practised on the large scale.

The process of distillation, as carried on in the distilleries of Great Britain, may be divided into four general operations, viz.--1. The mashing, or formation of a saccharine infusion from certain vegetable matters, as malt, barley, oats, rye, &c. 2. The cooling of this wort or liquor. 3. The fermentation, or process by which the sugar of the cooled wort is converted into alcohol. 4. The separation of the spirit so formed by means of a still and refrigerator. By the first operation the materials for the formation of the alcohol are obtained; by the second, they are brought to a temperature most favorable to the transformation that takes place in the third, after which it only remains to free the product of the last operation from the foreign matter with which it is a.s.sociated; this is done in the fourth, which, correctly speaking, const.i.tutes the only part of the process which can be called distillation.

The general principles of the first three of the preceding operations are noticed in the articles BREWING, FERMENTATION, &c. It will there be seen that the amylaceous or starchy matter of the grain is first 'saccharified,' and afterwards converted into alcohol, and that certain precautions are necessary to render the process successful and economical.

In many of the distilleries of Great Britain mola.s.ses and a.n.a.logous saccharine substances are employed, in which case the vegetable principle (sugar) essential to the formation of alcohol is already present, and merely requires simple solution in water of a proper temperature, to be ready to be subjected to immediate fermentation. In general, however, the sources of spirit in England are the various kinds of grain; barley, rye, maize, and rice are those commonly employed. These are ground and mixed with bruised malt, in various proportions, and are mashed in a similar manner to malted grain. The fermentation is carried on until the density of the liquor ceases to lessen or 'attenuate,' which is determined by an instrument called a saccharometer. When this point is arrived at, the 'wash' is submitted to distillation, to prevent the access of the acetous fermentation, which would lessen its alcoholic value.

During the process of distilling off the spirit of the fermented 'wash' or 'wort' a hydrometer is employed to ascertain the 'strength' of the liquor that pa.s.ses over. As soon as this has fallen to a certain point, the operation is stopped, and the 'spent wash' removed. The spirits obtained by the first distillation are generally called 'low wines,' and have a specific gravity of about 975. By rectification or 'doubling,' a crude milky spirit, abounding in oil, at first comes over, followed by clear spirit, which is received in a separate vessel. The process is continued until the alcoholic content of the distilled liquor has considerably diminished, when the remaining weak spirit that distils over, called 'faints,' is caught separately, and mixed with the low wines preparatory to another distillation. The strongest spirit pa.s.ses over first, and the condensed liquor gradually becomes weaker, until it ceases to contain alcohol. By receiving in separate vessels any given portion of the product, spirit of any required strength, within certain limits, may be obtained. The same object is more conveniently effected by surrounding the top of the capital of the still with a water bath, of a temperature corresponding to that of alcoholic vapour of the strength it is desired to obtain. Thus, if we keep the temperature of the water at about 198 Fahr., we shall obtain proof spirit; if at 192, a spirit 20 o. p.; and so on for other strengths.

It is found from experience, and is readily accounted for by theory, that the lower the temperature at which the distillation is conducted, the stronger will be the product, and the less quant.i.ty of oil or other volatile matter will come over along with it. To promote this, it has been proposed to carry on the process _in vacuo_, but on the large scale this has never been adopted. The distillation of the wash is usually performed in a separate set of stills to those employed for the rectification of the low wines. For very strong and tasteless spirit, a third and even a fourth rectification is employed, conjointly with other methods, to abstract the water and to remove any foreign matter that vitiates its odour or flavour.

A portion of soap is generally put into the still with the wash, to prevent excessive frothing.

We have said that the processes of mashing, &c., in the distillery are similar to those adopted in brewing beer. We may add that, as richness in alcohol, and not flavour, is the object aimed at in the distiller's wash, not only is a large quant.i.ty of unmalted grain employed, but the process of boiling the wort with hops is omitted altogether. The wort is commonly 'set' at 70 Fahr., and the fermentation and attenuation of the liquor pushed as far as possible by large and repeated doses of the best 'top-yeast' of the porter brewers.

It often happens that raw spirit prepared from damaged grain is contaminated with a highly acrid and volatile fatty substance, which is powerfully intoxicating and irritating to the eyes and nostrils, and possesses an odour very similar to that of an alcoholic solution of cyanogen. This may be got rid of by dilution with water and skilful rectification, when most of it pa.s.ses over with the first and last 'runnings,' the intermediate portion being less loaded with it. Another plan is to filter the spirit successively through 6 or 7 separate vessels containing pine or willow charcoal before rectifying it. In some distilleries the contaminated spirit is well agitated with a considerable quant.i.ty of olive oil, and after repose decanted, diluted with water, and rectified as before. The ordinary corn oil or fusel oil of raw spirit is generally, for the most part, intercepted by a self-regulating bath arranged between the still-head and the refrigeratory.